5 Evidence-Based Health Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsEffects on Cardiovascular DeathEffects on Cholesterol LevelsEffects on Blood PressureEffects on InflammationEffects on PregnancyUnproven UsesRisks of Taking Omega-3

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

Effects on Cardiovascular Death

Effects on Cholesterol Levels

Effects on Blood Pressure

Effects on Inflammation

Effects on Pregnancy

Unproven Uses

Risks of Taking Omega-3

Omega-3 fatty acids are one of two types of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Due to their anti-inflammatory properties, omega-3 fatty acids are considered the healthier type.

ALA is an essential fatty acid, meaning you can only get it from food. The body can convert ALA into EPA and DHA but in very limited amounts. Omega-3 fatty acids are promoted for many health benefits, but only some of these benefits have strong research to support their use.

Supplement Safety

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate dietary supplements the way it does for prescription medications. As a result, some supplement products may not contain the ingredients listed on the label.

1. May Reduce Risk of Cardiovascular Death

Large and long-term prospective randomized clinical trials, including VITAL, ASCEND, REDUCE-IT, and STRENGTH, have examined the effects of omega-3s on reducing the risk of death from heart disease.

In the trials, omega-3 supplements (EPA and DHA) helped reduce the following:

Another meta-analysis that included the above trials and others found that omega-3 supplementation reduced the risk of heart attack and mortality associated with coronary heart disease (CHD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD).

Moreover, an article in theCochrane Database of Systematic Reviewsconcluded that omega-3 supplementation slightly reduces the risk of CHD events and mortality.

Based on the evidence, experts recommend the following:

The FDA approved the health claim for omega-3 fatty acids confirming supportive, but not conclusive, evidence that EPA and DHA may reduce the risk of CHD. The dietary supplement labels for omega-3s should not recommend taking more than 2 grams daily.

Prescription Fish OilThe REDUCE-IT trial studied a high-doseprescription fish oil supplement. It was dosed at 4 grams per day. The results found that this dose reduced high levels of triglycerides (fat in the blood) and provided a 25% reduction in CVD events like heart attack or stroke.This study led to the fish oil supplement becoming an approved prescription treatment. It is now marketed as Vascepa, which has a recommended dose of 4 grams daily.

Prescription Fish Oil

The REDUCE-IT trial studied a high-doseprescription fish oil supplement. It was dosed at 4 grams per day. The results found that this dose reduced high levels of triglycerides (fat in the blood) and provided a 25% reduction in CVD events like heart attack or stroke.This study led to the fish oil supplement becoming an approved prescription treatment. It is now marketed as Vascepa, which has a recommended dose of 4 grams daily.

The REDUCE-IT trial studied a high-doseprescription fish oil supplement. It was dosed at 4 grams per day. The results found that this dose reduced high levels of triglycerides (fat in the blood) and provided a 25% reduction in CVD events like heart attack or stroke.

This study led to the fish oil supplement becoming an approved prescription treatment. It is now marketed as Vascepa, which has a recommended dose of 4 grams daily.

2. May Improve Cholesterol Levels

Conditions that are considered risk factors for CVD include high blood pressure (hypertension),high cholesterol levels (hyperlipidemia), obesity, and type 2 diabetes. Some of these conditions are also components ofmetabolic syndrome(a group of conditions that together increase the risk of diabetes, stroke, and heart disease).

Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation has been studied in people with obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes. Research has found that, compared to placebo, omega-3s helped:

Reducing or eliminating risk factors associated with CVD can help improve health outcomes. Discuss your risk factors and ways to manage risk with your healthcare provider.

3. May Lower Blood Pressure

In addition to its cholesterol-lowering effects, omega-3 supplements have demonstrated a potential in reducing blood pressure in clinical studies.

According to four trials evaluated as part of a larger meta-analysis, taking omega-3 supplements was associated with a significant decrease insystolic and diastolic blood pressurein people with metabolic syndrome. Systolic blood pressure is the amount of pressure in the arteries while the heart is beating, while diastolic is the amount of pressure while the heart is resting.

In other studies, ALA supplementation lowered blood pressure in people with obesity or overweight.

4. May Reduce Inflammation

Inflammation can be acute (your body’s sudden, natural response to injury or illness) or chronic (persists for a long time without injury or illness).Chronic inflammationcontributes to chronic illness.

Inflammation can be detected through blood tests. Common blood tests that are markers of inflammation includeC-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a).

Research has found that omega-3 supplements have:

Further research is needed to determine the full effects of these benefits.

5. Supports Fetal Growth in Pregnancy

DHA is an important nutrient during pregnancy that promotes the growth and development of the fetus. Studies have shown it can slightly increase birth weight and reducepreterm births.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends pregnant people consume 8 to 12 ounces of fish per week to get enough DHA.Fish like salmon, herring, sardines, and trout are great sources of omega-3s and do not contain excessive amounts of mercury.

If you’re unable to eat fish, omega-3 supplementation during pregnancy may offer some benefits. One meta-analysis found that supplementing with 450 to 800 milligrams of DHA per day reduces the risk of preterm births and can increase birth weight.

How Much Omega-3 Should You Take Per Day?

Omega-3 fatty acids are promoted for several other health conditions. For the following, the research is either inconsistent to fully support the use of omega-3s or is still in preliminary stages:

Fish oil supplements can have a fishy aftertaste. Other reported side effects include nausea, bloating, and burping. Always discuss the potential risks and side effects of omega-3 supplements before starting them.

Other risks of taking omega-3 supplements include:

Summary

Alpha-linolenic acid is found in plant-based food products like flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts. It is also found in flaxseed, canola, and soybean oils. Fish and seafood like salmon, herring, sardines, mackerel, trout, and oysters are good sources of DHA and EPA.

Omega-3 supplementsare available for those who cannot get these fats through their diet or those for which supplements offer an added health benefit. Omega-3 supplements can improve heart health, and high doses can lower triglyceride levels. Other benefits are not conclusive.

Before starting a daily supplement, you should speak with your healthcare provider to be sure they are of benefit to you.

29 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Miller M, et al.Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):11-22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1812792ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman L, Mafham M, et al.Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements in diabetes mellitus.N Engl J Med. 2018;379(16):1540-1550. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1804989Hu Y, Hu FB, Manson JE.Marine omega-3 supplementation and cardiovascular disease: an updated meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials involving 127 477 participants.J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(19):e013543. doi:10.1161/JAHA.119.013543Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5Skulas-Ray AC, Wilson PWF, Harris WS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the management of hypertriglyceridemia: a science advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2019;140(12):e673-e691. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000709U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.DailyMed.Label: Vascepa-icosapent ethyl capsule.Wang Y, Wang Y, Shehzad Q, et al.Does omega-3 PUFAs supplementation improve metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular diseases? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64(26):9455-9482. doi:10.1080/10408398.2023.2212817Liu YX, Yu JH, Sun JH, et al.Effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on serum lipid profile and blood pressure in patients with metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Foods. 2023;12(4):725. doi:10.3390/foods12040725Yin S, Xu H, Xia J, et al.Effect of alpha-linolenic acid supplementation on cardiovascular disease risk profile in individuals with obesity or overweight: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Adv Nutr. 2023;14(6):1644-1655. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.09.010Ibrahim Mohialdeen Gubari M.Effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on markers of inflammation and endothelial function in patients with chronic heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 2024;70(6):171-177. doi:10.14715/cmb/2024.70.6.26Amiri Khosroshahi R, Heidari Seyedmahalle M, Zeraattalab-Motlagh S, et al.The effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on inflammatory factors in cancer patients: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Nutr Cancer. 2024;76(1):1-16. doi:10.1080/01635581.2023.2274135Muzammil K, Khaleel AQ, Merza MS, et al.The effects of ω-3 fatty acids on inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials.Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2024;175:106887. doi:10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2024.106887Bilgundi K, Viswanatha GL, Purushottam KM, et al.Docosahexaenoic acid and pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the association with improved maternal and fetal health.Nutr Res. 2024;128:82-93. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2024.06.008Cooper RE, Tye C, Kuntsi J, Vassos E, Asherson P.The effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on emotional dysregulation, oppositional behaviour and conduct problems in ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Affect Disord. 2016;190:474-482. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.053Wu S, Feng B, Li K, et al.Fish consumption and colorectal cancer risk in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Med. 2012;125(6):551-9.e5. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.01.022Zheng JS, Hu XJ, Zhao YM, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of breast cancer: meta-analysis of data from 21 independent prospective cohort studies.BMJ. 2013;346:f3706. doi:10.1136/bmj.f3706Welty FK.Omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive function.Curr Opin Lipidol. 2023;34(1):12-21. doi:10.1097/MOL.0000000000000862Appleton KM, Voyias PD, Sallis HM, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for depression in adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;11(11):CD004692. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004692.pub5Jiang H, Shi X, Fan Y, et al.Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration.Clin Nutr. 2021;40(12):5662-5673. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.10.005Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Research Group.Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration: the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial [published correction appears in JAMA. 2013;310(2):208].JAMA. 2013;309(19):2005-2015. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.4997Downie LE, Ng SM, Lindsley KB, Akpek EK.Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids for dry eye disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;12(12):CD011016. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011016.pub2Nevins JEH, Donovan SM, Snetselaar L, et al.Omega-3 fatty acid dietary supplements consumed during pregnancy and lactation and child neurodevelopment: a systematic review.J Nutr. 2021;151(11):3483-3494. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab238Gkiouras K, Grammatikopoulou MG, Myrogiannis I, et al.Efficacy of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on rheumatoid arthritis' disease activity indicators: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr.2024;64(1):16-30. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2104210Lombardi M, Carbone S, Del Buono MG, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation and risk of atrial fibrillation: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2021;7(4):e69-e70. doi:10.1093/ehjcvp/pvab008Yan J, Liu M, Yang D, et al.Efficacy and safety of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2024;38(4):799-817. doi:10.1007/s10557-022-07379-zBrasky TM, Darke AK, Song X, et al.Plasma phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk in the SELECT trial.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(15):1132-1141. doi:10.1093/jnci/djt174

29 Sources

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Miller M, et al.Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):11-22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1812792ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman L, Mafham M, et al.Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements in diabetes mellitus.N Engl J Med. 2018;379(16):1540-1550. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1804989Hu Y, Hu FB, Manson JE.Marine omega-3 supplementation and cardiovascular disease: an updated meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials involving 127 477 participants.J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(19):e013543. doi:10.1161/JAHA.119.013543Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5Skulas-Ray AC, Wilson PWF, Harris WS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the management of hypertriglyceridemia: a science advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2019;140(12):e673-e691. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000709U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.DailyMed.Label: Vascepa-icosapent ethyl capsule.Wang Y, Wang Y, Shehzad Q, et al.Does omega-3 PUFAs supplementation improve metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular diseases? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64(26):9455-9482. doi:10.1080/10408398.2023.2212817Liu YX, Yu JH, Sun JH, et al.Effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on serum lipid profile and blood pressure in patients with metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Foods. 2023;12(4):725. doi:10.3390/foods12040725Yin S, Xu H, Xia J, et al.Effect of alpha-linolenic acid supplementation on cardiovascular disease risk profile in individuals with obesity or overweight: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Adv Nutr. 2023;14(6):1644-1655. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.09.010Ibrahim Mohialdeen Gubari M.Effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on markers of inflammation and endothelial function in patients with chronic heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 2024;70(6):171-177. doi:10.14715/cmb/2024.70.6.26Amiri Khosroshahi R, Heidari Seyedmahalle M, Zeraattalab-Motlagh S, et al.The effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on inflammatory factors in cancer patients: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Nutr Cancer. 2024;76(1):1-16. doi:10.1080/01635581.2023.2274135Muzammil K, Khaleel AQ, Merza MS, et al.The effects of ω-3 fatty acids on inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials.Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2024;175:106887. doi:10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2024.106887Bilgundi K, Viswanatha GL, Purushottam KM, et al.Docosahexaenoic acid and pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the association with improved maternal and fetal health.Nutr Res. 2024;128:82-93. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2024.06.008Cooper RE, Tye C, Kuntsi J, Vassos E, Asherson P.The effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on emotional dysregulation, oppositional behaviour and conduct problems in ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Affect Disord. 2016;190:474-482. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.053Wu S, Feng B, Li K, et al.Fish consumption and colorectal cancer risk in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Med. 2012;125(6):551-9.e5. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.01.022Zheng JS, Hu XJ, Zhao YM, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of breast cancer: meta-analysis of data from 21 independent prospective cohort studies.BMJ. 2013;346:f3706. doi:10.1136/bmj.f3706Welty FK.Omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive function.Curr Opin Lipidol. 2023;34(1):12-21. doi:10.1097/MOL.0000000000000862Appleton KM, Voyias PD, Sallis HM, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for depression in adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;11(11):CD004692. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004692.pub5Jiang H, Shi X, Fan Y, et al.Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration.Clin Nutr. 2021;40(12):5662-5673. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.10.005Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Research Group.Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration: the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial [published correction appears in JAMA. 2013;310(2):208].JAMA. 2013;309(19):2005-2015. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.4997Downie LE, Ng SM, Lindsley KB, Akpek EK.Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids for dry eye disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;12(12):CD011016. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011016.pub2Nevins JEH, Donovan SM, Snetselaar L, et al.Omega-3 fatty acid dietary supplements consumed during pregnancy and lactation and child neurodevelopment: a systematic review.J Nutr. 2021;151(11):3483-3494. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab238Gkiouras K, Grammatikopoulou MG, Myrogiannis I, et al.Efficacy of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on rheumatoid arthritis' disease activity indicators: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr.2024;64(1):16-30. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2104210Lombardi M, Carbone S, Del Buono MG, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation and risk of atrial fibrillation: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2021;7(4):e69-e70. doi:10.1093/ehjcvp/pvab008Yan J, Liu M, Yang D, et al.Efficacy and safety of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2024;38(4):799-817. doi:10.1007/s10557-022-07379-zBrasky TM, Darke AK, Song X, et al.Plasma phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk in the SELECT trial.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(15):1132-1141. doi:10.1093/jnci/djt174

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Miller M, et al.Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):11-22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1812792ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman L, Mafham M, et al.Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements in diabetes mellitus.N Engl J Med. 2018;379(16):1540-1550. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1804989Hu Y, Hu FB, Manson JE.Marine omega-3 supplementation and cardiovascular disease: an updated meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials involving 127 477 participants.J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(19):e013543. doi:10.1161/JAHA.119.013543Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5Skulas-Ray AC, Wilson PWF, Harris WS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the management of hypertriglyceridemia: a science advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2019;140(12):e673-e691. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000709U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.DailyMed.Label: Vascepa-icosapent ethyl capsule.Wang Y, Wang Y, Shehzad Q, et al.Does omega-3 PUFAs supplementation improve metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular diseases? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64(26):9455-9482. doi:10.1080/10408398.2023.2212817Liu YX, Yu JH, Sun JH, et al.Effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on serum lipid profile and blood pressure in patients with metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Foods. 2023;12(4):725. doi:10.3390/foods12040725Yin S, Xu H, Xia J, et al.Effect of alpha-linolenic acid supplementation on cardiovascular disease risk profile in individuals with obesity or overweight: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Adv Nutr. 2023;14(6):1644-1655. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.09.010Ibrahim Mohialdeen Gubari M.Effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on markers of inflammation and endothelial function in patients with chronic heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 2024;70(6):171-177. doi:10.14715/cmb/2024.70.6.26Amiri Khosroshahi R, Heidari Seyedmahalle M, Zeraattalab-Motlagh S, et al.The effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on inflammatory factors in cancer patients: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Nutr Cancer. 2024;76(1):1-16. doi:10.1080/01635581.2023.2274135Muzammil K, Khaleel AQ, Merza MS, et al.The effects of ω-3 fatty acids on inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials.Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2024;175:106887. doi:10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2024.106887Bilgundi K, Viswanatha GL, Purushottam KM, et al.Docosahexaenoic acid and pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the association with improved maternal and fetal health.Nutr Res. 2024;128:82-93. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2024.06.008Cooper RE, Tye C, Kuntsi J, Vassos E, Asherson P.The effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on emotional dysregulation, oppositional behaviour and conduct problems in ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Affect Disord. 2016;190:474-482. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.053Wu S, Feng B, Li K, et al.Fish consumption and colorectal cancer risk in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Med. 2012;125(6):551-9.e5. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.01.022Zheng JS, Hu XJ, Zhao YM, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of breast cancer: meta-analysis of data from 21 independent prospective cohort studies.BMJ. 2013;346:f3706. doi:10.1136/bmj.f3706Welty FK.Omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive function.Curr Opin Lipidol. 2023;34(1):12-21. doi:10.1097/MOL.0000000000000862Appleton KM, Voyias PD, Sallis HM, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for depression in adults.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;11(11):CD004692. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004692.pub5Jiang H, Shi X, Fan Y, et al.Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration.Clin Nutr. 2021;40(12):5662-5673. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.10.005Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Research Group.Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration: the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial [published correction appears in JAMA. 2013;310(2):208].JAMA. 2013;309(19):2005-2015. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.4997Downie LE, Ng SM, Lindsley KB, Akpek EK.Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids for dry eye disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;12(12):CD011016. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011016.pub2Nevins JEH, Donovan SM, Snetselaar L, et al.Omega-3 fatty acid dietary supplements consumed during pregnancy and lactation and child neurodevelopment: a systematic review.J Nutr. 2021;151(11):3483-3494. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab238Gkiouras K, Grammatikopoulou MG, Myrogiannis I, et al.Efficacy of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on rheumatoid arthritis' disease activity indicators: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr.2024;64(1):16-30. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2104210Lombardi M, Carbone S, Del Buono MG, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation and risk of atrial fibrillation: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2021;7(4):e69-e70. doi:10.1093/ehjcvp/pvab008Yan J, Liu M, Yang D, et al.Efficacy and safety of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2024;38(4):799-817. doi:10.1007/s10557-022-07379-zBrasky TM, Darke AK, Song X, et al.Plasma phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk in the SELECT trial.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(15):1132-1141. doi:10.1093/jnci/djt174

National Institute of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.

Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403

Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Miller M, et al.Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):11-22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1812792

ASCEND Study Collaborative Group, Bowman L, Mafham M, et al.Effects of n-3 fatty acid supplements in diabetes mellitus.N Engl J Med. 2018;379(16):1540-1550. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1804989

Hu Y, Hu FB, Manson JE.Marine omega-3 supplementation and cardiovascular disease: an updated meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials involving 127 477 participants.J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(19):e013543. doi:10.1161/JAHA.119.013543

Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5

Skulas-Ray AC, Wilson PWF, Harris WS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the management of hypertriglyceridemia: a science advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2019;140(12):e673-e691. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000709

U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.

DailyMed.Label: Vascepa-icosapent ethyl capsule.

Wang Y, Wang Y, Shehzad Q, et al.Does omega-3 PUFAs supplementation improve metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular diseases? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64(26):9455-9482. doi:10.1080/10408398.2023.2212817

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