Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsSteroid InjectionsKnee-Gel InjectionsProlotherapy InjectionsPlasma InjectionsStem Cell InjectionsWhen to Use Injections
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Steroid Injections
Knee-Gel Injections
Prolotherapy Injections
Plasma Injections
Stem Cell Injections
When to Use Injections
Several types of injections are used to relieve knee pain symptoms, such as steroid injections, hyaluronic acid (HA), platelet-rich plasma (PRP), and regenerative therapies.
Knee injections for pain can be a practical option for people who do not respond to pain management drugs and for people who want to treat knee pain without surgery. The injections can temporarily relieve symptoms and improve pain and joint function. A healthcare provider will give these injections directly into the affected joint.
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1. Steroid Injections
Steroid injections,also known as corticosteroid injections, are anti-inflammatory drugs used to treat various conditions. They are often prescribed for people withrheumatoid arthritisand other types of inflammatory arthritis causing joint pain, warmth, tenderness, and swelling. They are also used inosteoarthritis(joint pain and stiffness that comes on with age and wear and tear) for extra pain relief.
Common examples include:
While useful for short-term pain relief, studies have not shown corticosteroid injections to be beneficial for long-term management. One study indicated that repeated injections may have destructive effects on cartilage, with no long-term benefit for knee pain.
What to Expect
Your provider inserts a small needle to inject medicine into the specified area. Depending on the injection site, the healthcare provider may use an X-ray or ultrasound to see the inflamed area.
A steroid injection may also contain a local anesthetic (a numbing drug) to reduce the discomfort while injecting the drug.
You can go home the day of the procedure. If you have swelling after the injection, apply an ice pack over the site for 15 to 20 minutes a few times a day. Get plenty of rest for a few days after getting a shot.
Steroid injections typically take five to seven days to start working to reduce pain and inflammation.The effects usually last a few weeks or up to three months.
Some common risks associated with steroid injections include:
It is important to note that steroid drugs are not artificial steroids used to develop muscle mass.
How Long Do Cortisone Shots Last?Corticosteroid injections can help reduce pain for up to three months after the injection. However, results may vary among people.
How Long Do Cortisone Shots Last?
Corticosteroid injections can help reduce pain for up to three months after the injection. However, results may vary among people.
2. Knee-Gel Injections (Hyaluronic Acid)
In arthritis, synovial fluid is increased and cartilage (connective tissue in joints) is reduced, causing inflammation and pain.Hyaluronic acidis a natural substance present in the synovial fluid of your knee joints. It works to lubricate the joint and absorb shocks during movements. It also increases synovial fluid viscosity and decreases the degradation of cartilage.
Your healthcare provider may inject hyaluronic acid into the joint to help increase lubrication and reduce pain. Hyaluronic acid is also called artificial joint fluid or viscosupplementation.
When administering hyaluronic acid, the healthcare provider will do the following:
Some common side effects associated with hyaluronic acid injections are pain and swelling in the joint. Some people may have a more severe reaction called an injection flare. It causes fluid accumulation with pain and swelling in the joint.
You may need an injection every week for three to five weeks to start feeling the improvement in symptoms. The pain relief can last a few months, but this may vary. In some people, the benefits of knee-gel injections last for six months.
Knee-gel injections are a low-risk treatment option. It can help manage your symptoms for longer without needing surgery.
Why Is My Knee Pain Worse After a Gel Injection?It’s normal to feel a bit of soreness or stiffness for a few days following the injection. However, in some cases, a severe localized reaction can occur. This can cause severe pain and swelling in the injected joint. It can happen anywhere from a few hours after the injection to five or six days later.Contact your provider if you have severe pain or swelling after receiving an injection.
Why Is My Knee Pain Worse After a Gel Injection?
It’s normal to feel a bit of soreness or stiffness for a few days following the injection. However, in some cases, a severe localized reaction can occur. This can cause severe pain and swelling in the injected joint. It can happen anywhere from a few hours after the injection to five or six days later.Contact your provider if you have severe pain or swelling after receiving an injection.
It’s normal to feel a bit of soreness or stiffness for a few days following the injection. However, in some cases, a severe localized reaction can occur. This can cause severe pain and swelling in the injected joint. It can happen anywhere from a few hours after the injection to five or six days later.
Contact your provider if you have severe pain or swelling after receiving an injection.
3. Prolotherapy Injections
Prolotherapyis a regenerative medicine treatment used to relieve pain. It is an injection of an irritant solution (usually a dextrose sugar or saline) given in joints, ligaments, or tendons.
However, some research supports its effectiveness in reducing stiffness and pain in various musculoskeletal conditions.The effectiveness of prolotherapy is not universally accepted because of incomplete research.
Prolotherapy does not cure any condition and is used as an elective (nonurgent) treatment.
Prolotherapy treatment generally involves three to four injections or more given over several months.The healthcare provider injects an irritant solution into a joint or ligament. You can go home immediately after the procedure.
Prolotherapy is a relatively low-risk treatment that usually doesn’t have any severe side effects. The most common side effect is soreness and swelling at the injection site. Other risks may include:
What Is the Success Rate of Prolotherapy Injections?Prolotherapy is not recommended as a first-line treatment due to the lack of evidence. Since most studies evaluating prolotherapy have only tracked its effects over several months, it’s difficult to say how beneficial it may be in the long term. Larger and longer clinical trials are necessary to determine the extent of its success in people with osteoarthritis.
What Is the Success Rate of Prolotherapy Injections?
Prolotherapy is not recommended as a first-line treatment due to the lack of evidence. Since most studies evaluating prolotherapy have only tracked its effects over several months, it’s difficult to say how beneficial it may be in the long term. Larger and longer clinical trials are necessary to determine the extent of its success in people with osteoarthritis.
4. Platelet-Rich Plasma Injections
Theplatelet-rich plasma(PRP) technique uses a person’s own blood cells to accelerate healing in a specific area. PRP injections can treat a range of musculoskeletal conditions. They are also used in cosmetic procedures.These injections can help reduce pain and inflammation, particularly in people in the early stages of arthritis.
PRP injection consists of plasma (the liquid portion of blood) and platelets (a type of blood cell).
The mechanism behind PRP injections is not completely understood. However, studies show that the increased concentration of growth factors (natural proteins or hormones) in platelet-rich plasma may stimulate or speed up the healing process.
A healthcare provider injects the PRP solution into a knee or a tendon. Sometimes, the provider uses an ultrasound to guide the injection.
The results of PRP treatment are noticeable after several weeks and up to 12 to 24 months after the injection.Some people may need additional injections as recommended. PRP injections do not usually cause any severe side effects.
5. Stem Cell Injections
Stem cells are regenerative medicine obtained from the following:
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can increase in number or turn into almost any other type of human cell.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are emerging as a potential treatment option for osteoarthritis. Stem cell treatments help regrow cartilage, which is lost in osteoarthritis. The cells travel to injury sites or inflamed body parts to release several natural regenerative and growth factors.
Stem cells can enhance the growth of cartilage and supporting tissue, thus improving tissue repair. They can also decrease the intensity of inflammation and prevent a hyperactive immune response.
The FDA does not approve stem cell therapy to treat arthritis. More research and trials are needed to prove the efficacy of this procedure.
Does Insurance Cover Stem Cell Injections for Knee Pain?The FDA has not approved stem cell therapy for osteoarthritis. It is considered an investigational therapy.The treatment still needs to be standardized, and most insurance companies do not cover the cost of the therapy.
Does Insurance Cover Stem Cell Injections for Knee Pain?
The FDA has not approved stem cell therapy for osteoarthritis. It is considered an investigational therapy.The treatment still needs to be standardized, and most insurance companies do not cover the cost of the therapy.
Injections for Pain: When Should You Use Them?
The first line of treatment to manage the symptoms of osteoarthritis is a combination of medications with nondrug methods. Nondrug methods may include:
OTC painkillers and anti-inflammatory drugs such as topical gels, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as OTC Advil or Motrin (ibuprofen), or prescription drugs such as opioids and steroids relieve pain and reduce disability.
People with hip and knee osteoarthritis who do not respond to these drugs are prescribed knee injections. When all other oral medications do not give the required results, knee injections are usually a treatment of choice before resorting to surgery.
Summary
Different types of injections are available to help reduce arthritis symptoms, such as pain and inflammation, and slow the progression of joint destruction.
While OTC and prescription pain relievers are considered first-line therapy, several novel therapeutic strategies are being investigated and developed for knee pain. These injectables can improve the lubrication between the joints to ease the symptoms.
Steroids, hyaluronic acid injections, and regenerative therapies, such as PRP and stem cell injections, are among the available options. Based on the current evidence, steroid injections are the most widely accepted of the injection therapies for short-term pain relief.
20 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Testa G, Giardina SMC, Culmone A, et al.Intra-articular injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of literature.J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2021;6(1):15. doi:10.3390/jfmk6010015Ayhan E, Kesmezacar H, Akgun I.Intraarticular injections (Corticosteroid, hyaluronic acid, platelet rich plasma) for the knee osteoarthritis.World J Orthop.2014;5(3):351-361. doi:10.5312/wjo.v5.i3.351McAlindon TE, LaValley MP, Harvey WF, et al.Effect of intra-articular triamcinolone vs saline on knee cartilage volume and pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA. 2017;317(19):1967-1975. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.5283MedlinePlus.Steroid injections-tendon, bursa joint.Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil.2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons.Treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee, 2nd edition.De Lucia O, Murgo A, Pregnolato F, et al.Hyaluronic acid injections in the treatment of osteoarthritis secondary to primary inflammatory rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and qualitative synthesis.Adv Ther.2020;37(4):1347-1359. doi:10.1007/s12325-020-01256-7Aydın M, Arıkan M, Toğral G, Varış O, Aydın G.Viscosupplementation of the knee: Three cases of acute Pseudoseptic Arthritis with painful and irritating complications and a literature review.Eur J Rheumatol. 2017;4(1):59-62. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.15075Ong KL, Runa M, Xiao Z, et al.Severe acute localized reactions following intra-articular hyaluronic acid injections in knee osteoarthritis.Cartilage. 2021;13(1_suppl):1474S-1486S. doi:10.1177/1947603520905113Bae G, Kim S, Lee S, Lee WY, Lim Y.Prolotherapy for the patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain: systematic review and meta-analysis.Anesth Pain Med (Seoul). 2021;16(1):81-95. doi:10.17085/apm.20078Hauser RA, Lackner JB, Steilen-Matias D, Harris DK.A systematic review of dextrose prolotherapy for chronic musculoskeletal pain.Clin Med Insights Arthritis Musculoskelet Disord.2016;9:139-159. doi:10.4137/CMAMD.S39160Zhao AT, Caballero CJ, Nguyen LT, et al.A comprehensive update of prolotherapy in the management of osteoarthritis of the knee.Orthop Rev (Pavia). 14(3):33921. doi:10.52965/001c.33921Arthritis Foundation.Prolotherapy for osteoarthritis.Dhurat R, Sukesh M.Principles and methods of preparation of platelet-rich plasma: a review and author’s perspective.J Cutan Aesthet Surg.2014;7(4):189-197. doi:10.4103/0974-2077.150734MedlinePlus.Medicines, injections and supplements for arthritis.Rodríguez-Merchán EC.Intra-articular platelet-rich plasma injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of their current molecular mechanisms of action and their degree of efficacy.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1301. doi:10.3390/ijms23031301Zhu C, Wu W, Qu X.Mesenchymal stem cells in osteoarthritis therapy: a review.Am J Transl Res. 2021;13(2):448-461.US Food and Drug Administration.Important patient and consumer information about regenerative medicine therapies.Connelly AE, Tucker AJ, Kott LS, et al.Modifiable lifestyle factors are associated with lower pain levels in adults with knee osteoarthritis.Pain Res Manag. 2015;20(5):241-248. doi:10.1155/2015/389084
20 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Testa G, Giardina SMC, Culmone A, et al.Intra-articular injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of literature.J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2021;6(1):15. doi:10.3390/jfmk6010015Ayhan E, Kesmezacar H, Akgun I.Intraarticular injections (Corticosteroid, hyaluronic acid, platelet rich plasma) for the knee osteoarthritis.World J Orthop.2014;5(3):351-361. doi:10.5312/wjo.v5.i3.351McAlindon TE, LaValley MP, Harvey WF, et al.Effect of intra-articular triamcinolone vs saline on knee cartilage volume and pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA. 2017;317(19):1967-1975. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.5283MedlinePlus.Steroid injections-tendon, bursa joint.Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil.2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons.Treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee, 2nd edition.De Lucia O, Murgo A, Pregnolato F, et al.Hyaluronic acid injections in the treatment of osteoarthritis secondary to primary inflammatory rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and qualitative synthesis.Adv Ther.2020;37(4):1347-1359. doi:10.1007/s12325-020-01256-7Aydın M, Arıkan M, Toğral G, Varış O, Aydın G.Viscosupplementation of the knee: Three cases of acute Pseudoseptic Arthritis with painful and irritating complications and a literature review.Eur J Rheumatol. 2017;4(1):59-62. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.15075Ong KL, Runa M, Xiao Z, et al.Severe acute localized reactions following intra-articular hyaluronic acid injections in knee osteoarthritis.Cartilage. 2021;13(1_suppl):1474S-1486S. doi:10.1177/1947603520905113Bae G, Kim S, Lee S, Lee WY, Lim Y.Prolotherapy for the patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain: systematic review and meta-analysis.Anesth Pain Med (Seoul). 2021;16(1):81-95. doi:10.17085/apm.20078Hauser RA, Lackner JB, Steilen-Matias D, Harris DK.A systematic review of dextrose prolotherapy for chronic musculoskeletal pain.Clin Med Insights Arthritis Musculoskelet Disord.2016;9:139-159. doi:10.4137/CMAMD.S39160Zhao AT, Caballero CJ, Nguyen LT, et al.A comprehensive update of prolotherapy in the management of osteoarthritis of the knee.Orthop Rev (Pavia). 14(3):33921. doi:10.52965/001c.33921Arthritis Foundation.Prolotherapy for osteoarthritis.Dhurat R, Sukesh M.Principles and methods of preparation of platelet-rich plasma: a review and author’s perspective.J Cutan Aesthet Surg.2014;7(4):189-197. doi:10.4103/0974-2077.150734MedlinePlus.Medicines, injections and supplements for arthritis.Rodríguez-Merchán EC.Intra-articular platelet-rich plasma injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of their current molecular mechanisms of action and their degree of efficacy.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1301. doi:10.3390/ijms23031301Zhu C, Wu W, Qu X.Mesenchymal stem cells in osteoarthritis therapy: a review.Am J Transl Res. 2021;13(2):448-461.US Food and Drug Administration.Important patient and consumer information about regenerative medicine therapies.Connelly AE, Tucker AJ, Kott LS, et al.Modifiable lifestyle factors are associated with lower pain levels in adults with knee osteoarthritis.Pain Res Manag. 2015;20(5):241-248. doi:10.1155/2015/389084
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Testa G, Giardina SMC, Culmone A, et al.Intra-articular injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of literature.J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2021;6(1):15. doi:10.3390/jfmk6010015Ayhan E, Kesmezacar H, Akgun I.Intraarticular injections (Corticosteroid, hyaluronic acid, platelet rich plasma) for the knee osteoarthritis.World J Orthop.2014;5(3):351-361. doi:10.5312/wjo.v5.i3.351McAlindon TE, LaValley MP, Harvey WF, et al.Effect of intra-articular triamcinolone vs saline on knee cartilage volume and pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA. 2017;317(19):1967-1975. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.5283MedlinePlus.Steroid injections-tendon, bursa joint.Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil.2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons.Treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee, 2nd edition.De Lucia O, Murgo A, Pregnolato F, et al.Hyaluronic acid injections in the treatment of osteoarthritis secondary to primary inflammatory rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and qualitative synthesis.Adv Ther.2020;37(4):1347-1359. doi:10.1007/s12325-020-01256-7Aydın M, Arıkan M, Toğral G, Varış O, Aydın G.Viscosupplementation of the knee: Three cases of acute Pseudoseptic Arthritis with painful and irritating complications and a literature review.Eur J Rheumatol. 2017;4(1):59-62. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.15075Ong KL, Runa M, Xiao Z, et al.Severe acute localized reactions following intra-articular hyaluronic acid injections in knee osteoarthritis.Cartilage. 2021;13(1_suppl):1474S-1486S. doi:10.1177/1947603520905113Bae G, Kim S, Lee S, Lee WY, Lim Y.Prolotherapy for the patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain: systematic review and meta-analysis.Anesth Pain Med (Seoul). 2021;16(1):81-95. doi:10.17085/apm.20078Hauser RA, Lackner JB, Steilen-Matias D, Harris DK.A systematic review of dextrose prolotherapy for chronic musculoskeletal pain.Clin Med Insights Arthritis Musculoskelet Disord.2016;9:139-159. doi:10.4137/CMAMD.S39160Zhao AT, Caballero CJ, Nguyen LT, et al.A comprehensive update of prolotherapy in the management of osteoarthritis of the knee.Orthop Rev (Pavia). 14(3):33921. doi:10.52965/001c.33921Arthritis Foundation.Prolotherapy for osteoarthritis.Dhurat R, Sukesh M.Principles and methods of preparation of platelet-rich plasma: a review and author’s perspective.J Cutan Aesthet Surg.2014;7(4):189-197. doi:10.4103/0974-2077.150734MedlinePlus.Medicines, injections and supplements for arthritis.Rodríguez-Merchán EC.Intra-articular platelet-rich plasma injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of their current molecular mechanisms of action and their degree of efficacy.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1301. doi:10.3390/ijms23031301Zhu C, Wu W, Qu X.Mesenchymal stem cells in osteoarthritis therapy: a review.Am J Transl Res. 2021;13(2):448-461.US Food and Drug Administration.Important patient and consumer information about regenerative medicine therapies.Connelly AE, Tucker AJ, Kott LS, et al.Modifiable lifestyle factors are associated with lower pain levels in adults with knee osteoarthritis.Pain Res Manag. 2015;20(5):241-248. doi:10.1155/2015/389084
Testa G, Giardina SMC, Culmone A, et al.Intra-articular injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of literature.J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2021;6(1):15. doi:10.3390/jfmk6010015
Ayhan E, Kesmezacar H, Akgun I.Intraarticular injections (Corticosteroid, hyaluronic acid, platelet rich plasma) for the knee osteoarthritis.World J Orthop.2014;5(3):351-361. doi:10.5312/wjo.v5.i3.351
McAlindon TE, LaValley MP, Harvey WF, et al.Effect of intra-articular triamcinolone vs saline on knee cartilage volume and pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA. 2017;317(19):1967-1975. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.5283
MedlinePlus.Steroid injections-tendon, bursa joint.
Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384
Saltychev M, Mattie R, McCormick Z, Laimi K.The magnitude and duration of the effect of intra-articular corticosteroid injections on pain severity in knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Am J Phys Med Rehabil.2020;99(7):617-625. doi:10.1097/PHM.0000000000001384
American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons.Treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee, 2nd edition.
De Lucia O, Murgo A, Pregnolato F, et al.Hyaluronic acid injections in the treatment of osteoarthritis secondary to primary inflammatory rheumatic diseases: a systematic review and qualitative synthesis.Adv Ther.2020;37(4):1347-1359. doi:10.1007/s12325-020-01256-7
Aydın M, Arıkan M, Toğral G, Varış O, Aydın G.Viscosupplementation of the knee: Three cases of acute Pseudoseptic Arthritis with painful and irritating complications and a literature review.Eur J Rheumatol. 2017;4(1):59-62. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.15075
Ong KL, Runa M, Xiao Z, et al.Severe acute localized reactions following intra-articular hyaluronic acid injections in knee osteoarthritis.Cartilage. 2021;13(1_suppl):1474S-1486S. doi:10.1177/1947603520905113
Bae G, Kim S, Lee S, Lee WY, Lim Y.Prolotherapy for the patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain: systematic review and meta-analysis.Anesth Pain Med (Seoul). 2021;16(1):81-95. doi:10.17085/apm.20078
Hauser RA, Lackner JB, Steilen-Matias D, Harris DK.A systematic review of dextrose prolotherapy for chronic musculoskeletal pain.Clin Med Insights Arthritis Musculoskelet Disord.2016;9:139-159. doi:10.4137/CMAMD.S39160
Zhao AT, Caballero CJ, Nguyen LT, et al.A comprehensive update of prolotherapy in the management of osteoarthritis of the knee.Orthop Rev (Pavia). 14(3):33921. doi:10.52965/001c.33921
Arthritis Foundation.Prolotherapy for osteoarthritis.
Dhurat R, Sukesh M.Principles and methods of preparation of platelet-rich plasma: a review and author’s perspective.J Cutan Aesthet Surg.2014;7(4):189-197. doi:10.4103/0974-2077.150734
MedlinePlus.Medicines, injections and supplements for arthritis.
Rodríguez-Merchán EC.Intra-articular platelet-rich plasma injections in knee osteoarthritis: a review of their current molecular mechanisms of action and their degree of efficacy.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1301. doi:10.3390/ijms23031301
Zhu C, Wu W, Qu X.Mesenchymal stem cells in osteoarthritis therapy: a review.Am J Transl Res. 2021;13(2):448-461.
US Food and Drug Administration.Important patient and consumer information about regenerative medicine therapies.
Connelly AE, Tucker AJ, Kott LS, et al.Modifiable lifestyle factors are associated with lower pain levels in adults with knee osteoarthritis.Pain Res Manag. 2015;20(5):241-248. doi:10.1155/2015/389084
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