Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsNeurological Parasitic InfectionsNeurocysticercosisToxoplasmosisCerebral MalariaHuman African TrypanosomiasisSchistosomiasisEchinococcosisTrichinellaParagonimiasisAngiostrongyliasis
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Neurological Parasitic Infections
Neurocysticercosis
Toxoplasmosis
Cerebral Malaria
Human African Trypanosomiasis
Schistosomiasis
Echinococcosis
Trichinella
Paragonimiasis
Angiostrongyliasis
Parasitic infections can invade practically any part of the body. Brainparasites, those that infect thecentral nervous systemwhich includes the brain, are potentially the most damaging and the most disturbing.
Not only can these conditions sometimes be fatal, but they can result in lifelong disability. Early recognition and prompt treatment are important to reduce both mortality and the frequently catastrophic aftermath of these diseases.
Surprisingly a very large percentage of the world’s population does have some form ofparasitic infection, and it’s estimated that over a billion people are infected with roundworms alone.
Good hygiene (meticuloushand washingand wearing gloves), careful and thorough washing of fruits and vegetables, and proper cooking of meats can go a long way in lowering your risk of these conditions.
What symptoms do brain parasites cause?You may be asymptomatic and still have a parasitic brain infection. However, you may suffer from seizures and neurological problems, which are symptoms of brain parasites due to toxoplasmosis, neurocysticercosis, cerebral malaria, echinococcus, and other infections.
What symptoms do brain parasites cause?
You may be asymptomatic and still have a parasitic brain infection. However, you may suffer from seizures and neurological problems, which are symptoms of brain parasites due to toxoplasmosis, neurocysticercosis, cerebral malaria, echinococcus, and other infections.
1. Neurocysticercosis
Neurocysticercosisoccurs via fecal-oral transmission, or when people are exposed to human feces containing the eggs ofTaenia solium, a porktapeworm. Handwashing and kitchen cleanliness are critical so as not to ingest the eggs.
Ingesting the eggs leads to tapeworm larvae growing in many different human tissues, particularly brain and muscle. This leads to seizures and more.
Undercooked pork can containtapeworm larvae,potentially leading totapeworm infectionin the small intestine, with each worm shedding thousands of eggs. It is the eggs that can transmit neurocysticercosis.
The disease is most common in regions where pigs are raised and sanitation is poor, including much of South America and India, and is thought to have infected at least 50 million people worldwide.
Cysticercosis is a leading cause of seizures worldwide and is a growing health problem in the United States (primarily due to immigration from Latin America).Treatmentincludes albendazole and praziquantel along with steroids to reduce swelling in the brain.
Prevention consists of careful handwashing, avoiding contaminated meat, and making sure to eat only pork that has been cooked thoroughly.
What is the most common brain parasite?Parasites that affect the central nervous system are much more common in developing countries than in the United States, but they still affect a significant number of people.Neurocysticercosis is the most common parasite infection worldwide.
What is the most common brain parasite?
Parasites that affect the central nervous system are much more common in developing countries than in the United States, but they still affect a significant number of people.Neurocysticercosis is the most common parasite infection worldwide.
2. Toxoplasmosis
Sometimes, toxoplasma infection can establish itself in the brain and spinal cord, and cysts can live there for years. However, the immune system keeps the parasite in check for most of us—and no symptoms develop. But in some cases of immunodeficiency, in particular,AIDS, the parasite is able to run amok in the brain.
These brain parasites create circularabscesses, which are visible on an MRI. They can have devastating neurological consequences includingseizures, focal neurological deficits, impaired consciousness, and death.
Toxoplasmosis is anAIDS-defining conditionamong those with HIV, which refers to diseases that are directly related to the suppression of the immune system associated with an HIV infection.
The preferred treatment for toxoplasmosis includes pyrimethamine, leucovorin, and sulfadiazine.If there’s any concern forelevated intracranial pressure, then steroids should also be used.
Hilary Allison / Verywell
Prevention techniques may include avoiding kitty litter (think: outdoor litter box or wearing gloves at a minimum), eating only fully cooked meat, thoroughly washing fruits and vegetables, and wearing gloves whenever gardening.
3. Cerebral Malaria
Malaria is one of the most serious threats to human life throughout the entire history of humankind. Over millennia, the disease has killed hundreds of millions of people.
Cerebralmalariacan cause changes in consciousness or seizures. Without treatment, the disease usually progresses to coma or death. With treatment, mortality is between 15% and 20%. Some survivors, especially children, can have residual deficits like blindness, deafness, seizures, or cognitive problems.
Cerebral malaria is most common where malaria is endemic, such as in Africa. Visitors to such regions can help prevent malaria infection with prophylactic medication and other preventative measures.
Those who suffer malarial infection require immediate treatment with eithercinchonaalkaloids such as quinidine, or artemisinin derivatives such as artesunate. The latter is the drug of choice in severe infection.
4. Human African Trypanosomiasis
After a period of time, sometimes years, the parasite spreads from the blood to the brain, leading tomeningoencephalitisand swelling. A headache, difficulty thinking, personality changes, and movement disorders such as tremors orataxia(lack of coordination) can result.
The disease is fatal without treatment. To diagnose the disease, the parasite must be seen under a microscope in a sample such as cerebrospinal fluid. Treatment involves medications such as eflornithine or melarsoprol—which can have serious side effects—but they’re considerably better than allowing the infection to go untreated.
5. Schistosomiasis
Once in the blood vessels, they can travel through the body. The worms use suckers to adhere to the wall of the blood vessel, where they can live for up to 30 years.
Roughly 240 million people are infected with schistosomiasis each year.
Most people with this infection feel no symptoms at all. Sometimes, acute infection can be seen one day after exposure with an itchy rash. One to two months later, fever, chills, cough, and muscle ache can develop. Later, as the schistosomes can spread to different organs, various symptoms can occur.
The worms can spread to the spinal cord, causingmyelopathy(compression of the spinal cord).This results in pain, urinary retention, and weakness in the regions below the level of infection. Permanent paralysis can result.In other cases, schistosomiasis can affect the brain, leading to epilepsy or elevated intracranial pressure.
Because these worms can live in the body for years, with the potential for serious trouble at any time, infected persons should be treated regardless of whether they have serious symptoms.
Praziquantel is the treatment of choice. If the worms have invaded the nervous system, steroids should be given as well in order to reduce the inflammatory response.
6. Echinococcosis
Echinococcus, also calledhydatidosis, is a tapeworm that, in the early stage of life, can cause cysts in living human tissue including the brain and spinal cord. The parasites which are responsible includeEchinococcus granulosusandEchinococcus multilocularis.
The initial stages of infection are always asymptomatic, and it may be years before the cysts cause any problems. In the brain, the cysts can cause seizures or elevated intracranial pressure.
In the spinal cord, the cysts can cause spinal cord compression and paralysis. Infections of the central nervous system are relatively rare, however—usually the cysts infect other organs, such as the lungs or liver.
Cysts can be found with a CT scan, but they’re usually found when an imaging test is done for some other reason. Cysts may need surgical removal, often with additional medical treatment with a drug such as albendazole or praziquantel.
7. Trichinella
Severe trichinellosis can cause meningitis and encephalitis. A headache is a common symptom. The CT scan show small cystic lesions throughout the brain. Treatment is with albendazole or mebendazole, sometimes combined with prednisone in severe cases.
8. Paragonimiasis
Paragonimiasisis a parasitic infection with a flatworm which may enter the body through eating undercooked crab or crayfish. It is rare in the United States, though several cases have been reported in the Midwest. Most commonly it is found in East Asian countries.
The parasite does not often affect the central nervous system but the parasite may reach the brain either through the bloodstream or through the foramina at the base of the skull.The adult form of the parasite both releases inflammatory substances and tunnels through tissues, which can result in headaches, seizures, andstrokes.
9. Angiostrongyliasis
The larva of this parasite migrates to the brain causing headaches, nausea, and neck stiffness. In contrast to many other parasitic infections of the central nervous system, there is no specifictreatmentavailable and the infection usually resolves over two to eight weeks.
How do you detect brain parasites?Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans may show signs of parasitic lesions and abscesses. Additional imaging studies, including CT scans and neuroimaging tests, are also used to help with diagnosis.
How do you detect brain parasites?
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans may show signs of parasitic lesions and abscesses. Additional imaging studies, including CT scans and neuroimaging tests, are also used to help with diagnosis.
Summary
A large percentage of people throughout the world live with a worm or other parasite that may eventually affect the central nervous system.
35 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RM, Short B, Dua T.Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16(4):401–414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454Stanford Children’s Health.Roundworm infection in children.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What causes parasitic diseases.Garcia HH.Parasitic Infections of the Nervous System. Continuum(Minneap Minn). 2021 Aug 1;27(4):943-962. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000000986. PMID: 34623099; PMCID: PMC8805156.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Clinical care of toxoplasmosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Neglected parasitic infections in the United States: neurocysticercosis.National Organization for Rare Disorders.Cysticercosis.World Health Organization.Taeniasis, cysticercosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - cysticercosis.Centers for Disease Control.Public Health Surveillance and Reporting for Human Toxoplasmosis — Six States, 2021U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About Toxoplasmosis.CLINICALINFO.HIV.GOV.Toxoplasmosis.Chang, CC, Clezy, K.Toxoplasmosis. ASHM, HIV management in Australasia.U.S. Food & Drug Administration.Toxoplasma from food safety for moms to be.Whitfield, J.Portrait of a serial killer.Nature.2002. doi:10.1038/news021001-6Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Malaria.Breman JG, Mills A, Snow RW, et al.Conquering malaria. In: Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., editors.Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.Achan J, Talisuna AO, Erhart A, et al.Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria.Malar J. 2011;10:144.World Health Organization.Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).Peterson, RD.African trypanosomiasis.Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenliworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.World Health Organization.WHO data show unprecedented treatment coverage for bilharzia and intestinal worms.IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans.Schistosoma haematobium.(IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 100B.)Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer.Moses A, Adriko M, Kibwika B, Tukahebwa EM, Faust CL, Lamberton PHL.Residence Time, Water Contact, and Age-driven Schistosoma mansoni Infection in Hotspot Communities in Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021 Oct 18;105(6):1772-1781. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0391. PMID: 34662868; PMCID: PMC8641335.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Schistosomiasis.Adeel AA.Spinal cord schistosomiasis.Sudan J Paediatr.2015;15(2):23-8.Coyle CM.Schistosomiasis of the nervous system.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:271-81. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00022-4World Health Organization.Echinococcosis.Pearson, RD.Echinococcsis. Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - echinococcosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - trichinellosis (also known as trichinosis).Pearson, RD.Trichinosis.Merck Manual Professional Version.Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co, Inc.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Paragonimiasis.Pittella JE.Pathology of CNS parasitic infections.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:65-88. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00005-4Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - angiostrongyliasis (also known as angiostrongylus infection).Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RME.Short B, Dua T. Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2016;16(4):401-414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454Additional ReadingCarpio, A., Romo, M., Parkhouse, R., Short, B., and T. Dua.Parasitic Diseases of the Central Nervous System: Lessons for Clinicians and Policy Makers.Expert Review in Neurotherapeutics. 16(4):401-414.Finsterer, J., and H. Auer.Parasitoses of the Human Central Nervous System.Journal of Helminthology. 87(3):257-70.Fogang, Y., Savadogo, A., Camara, M. et al.Managing Neurocysticercosis: Challenges and Solutions.International Journal of General Medicine. 8:333-44.Hora, R., Kapoor, P., Thind, K., and P. Mishra.Cerebral Malaria—Clinical Manifestations and Pathogenesis.Metabolic Brain Disease. 31(2):225-37.Kasper, Dennis L.., Anthony S. Fauci, and Stephen L.. Hauser.Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: Mc Graw Hill Education. Print.
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Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RM, Short B, Dua T.Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16(4):401–414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454Stanford Children’s Health.Roundworm infection in children.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What causes parasitic diseases.Garcia HH.Parasitic Infections of the Nervous System. Continuum(Minneap Minn). 2021 Aug 1;27(4):943-962. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000000986. PMID: 34623099; PMCID: PMC8805156.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Clinical care of toxoplasmosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Neglected parasitic infections in the United States: neurocysticercosis.National Organization for Rare Disorders.Cysticercosis.World Health Organization.Taeniasis, cysticercosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - cysticercosis.Centers for Disease Control.Public Health Surveillance and Reporting for Human Toxoplasmosis — Six States, 2021U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About Toxoplasmosis.CLINICALINFO.HIV.GOV.Toxoplasmosis.Chang, CC, Clezy, K.Toxoplasmosis. ASHM, HIV management in Australasia.U.S. Food & Drug Administration.Toxoplasma from food safety for moms to be.Whitfield, J.Portrait of a serial killer.Nature.2002. doi:10.1038/news021001-6Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Malaria.Breman JG, Mills A, Snow RW, et al.Conquering malaria. In: Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., editors.Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.Achan J, Talisuna AO, Erhart A, et al.Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria.Malar J. 2011;10:144.World Health Organization.Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).Peterson, RD.African trypanosomiasis.Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenliworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.World Health Organization.WHO data show unprecedented treatment coverage for bilharzia and intestinal worms.IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans.Schistosoma haematobium.(IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 100B.)Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer.Moses A, Adriko M, Kibwika B, Tukahebwa EM, Faust CL, Lamberton PHL.Residence Time, Water Contact, and Age-driven Schistosoma mansoni Infection in Hotspot Communities in Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021 Oct 18;105(6):1772-1781. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0391. PMID: 34662868; PMCID: PMC8641335.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Schistosomiasis.Adeel AA.Spinal cord schistosomiasis.Sudan J Paediatr.2015;15(2):23-8.Coyle CM.Schistosomiasis of the nervous system.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:271-81. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00022-4World Health Organization.Echinococcosis.Pearson, RD.Echinococcsis. Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - echinococcosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - trichinellosis (also known as trichinosis).Pearson, RD.Trichinosis.Merck Manual Professional Version.Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co, Inc.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Paragonimiasis.Pittella JE.Pathology of CNS parasitic infections.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:65-88. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00005-4Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - angiostrongyliasis (also known as angiostrongylus infection).Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RME.Short B, Dua T. Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2016;16(4):401-414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454Additional ReadingCarpio, A., Romo, M., Parkhouse, R., Short, B., and T. Dua.Parasitic Diseases of the Central Nervous System: Lessons for Clinicians and Policy Makers.Expert Review in Neurotherapeutics. 16(4):401-414.Finsterer, J., and H. Auer.Parasitoses of the Human Central Nervous System.Journal of Helminthology. 87(3):257-70.Fogang, Y., Savadogo, A., Camara, M. et al.Managing Neurocysticercosis: Challenges and Solutions.International Journal of General Medicine. 8:333-44.Hora, R., Kapoor, P., Thind, K., and P. Mishra.Cerebral Malaria—Clinical Manifestations and Pathogenesis.Metabolic Brain Disease. 31(2):225-37.Kasper, Dennis L.., Anthony S. Fauci, and Stephen L.. Hauser.Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: Mc Graw Hill Education. Print.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RM, Short B, Dua T.Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16(4):401–414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454Stanford Children’s Health.Roundworm infection in children.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What causes parasitic diseases.Garcia HH.Parasitic Infections of the Nervous System. Continuum(Minneap Minn). 2021 Aug 1;27(4):943-962. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000000986. PMID: 34623099; PMCID: PMC8805156.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Clinical care of toxoplasmosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Neglected parasitic infections in the United States: neurocysticercosis.National Organization for Rare Disorders.Cysticercosis.World Health Organization.Taeniasis, cysticercosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - cysticercosis.Centers for Disease Control.Public Health Surveillance and Reporting for Human Toxoplasmosis — Six States, 2021U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About Toxoplasmosis.CLINICALINFO.HIV.GOV.Toxoplasmosis.Chang, CC, Clezy, K.Toxoplasmosis. ASHM, HIV management in Australasia.U.S. Food & Drug Administration.Toxoplasma from food safety for moms to be.Whitfield, J.Portrait of a serial killer.Nature.2002. doi:10.1038/news021001-6Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Malaria.Breman JG, Mills A, Snow RW, et al.Conquering malaria. In: Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., editors.Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.Achan J, Talisuna AO, Erhart A, et al.Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria.Malar J. 2011;10:144.World Health Organization.Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).Peterson, RD.African trypanosomiasis.Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenliworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.World Health Organization.WHO data show unprecedented treatment coverage for bilharzia and intestinal worms.IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans.Schistosoma haematobium.(IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 100B.)Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer.Moses A, Adriko M, Kibwika B, Tukahebwa EM, Faust CL, Lamberton PHL.Residence Time, Water Contact, and Age-driven Schistosoma mansoni Infection in Hotspot Communities in Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021 Oct 18;105(6):1772-1781. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0391. PMID: 34662868; PMCID: PMC8641335.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Schistosomiasis.Adeel AA.Spinal cord schistosomiasis.Sudan J Paediatr.2015;15(2):23-8.Coyle CM.Schistosomiasis of the nervous system.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:271-81. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00022-4World Health Organization.Echinococcosis.Pearson, RD.Echinococcsis. Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - echinococcosis.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - trichinellosis (also known as trichinosis).Pearson, RD.Trichinosis.Merck Manual Professional Version.Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co, Inc.Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Paragonimiasis.Pittella JE.Pathology of CNS parasitic infections.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:65-88. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00005-4Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - angiostrongyliasis (also known as angiostrongylus infection).Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RME.Short B, Dua T. Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2016;16(4):401-414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454
Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RM, Short B, Dua T.Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16(4):401–414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454
Stanford Children’s Health.Roundworm infection in children.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.What causes parasitic diseases.
Garcia HH.Parasitic Infections of the Nervous System. Continuum(Minneap Minn). 2021 Aug 1;27(4):943-962. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000000986. PMID: 34623099; PMCID: PMC8805156.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Clinical care of toxoplasmosis.
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Neglected parasitic infections in the United States: neurocysticercosis.
National Organization for Rare Disorders.Cysticercosis.
World Health Organization.Taeniasis, cysticercosis.
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - cysticercosis.
Centers for Disease Control.Public Health Surveillance and Reporting for Human Toxoplasmosis — Six States, 2021
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About Toxoplasmosis.
CLINICALINFO.HIV.GOV.Toxoplasmosis.
Chang, CC, Clezy, K.Toxoplasmosis. ASHM, HIV management in Australasia.
U.S. Food & Drug Administration.Toxoplasma from food safety for moms to be.
Whitfield, J.Portrait of a serial killer.Nature.2002. doi:10.1038/news021001-6
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Malaria.
Breman JG, Mills A, Snow RW, et al.Conquering malaria. In: Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., editors.Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.
Achan J, Talisuna AO, Erhart A, et al.Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria.Malar J. 2011;10:144.
World Health Organization.Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).
Peterson, RD.African trypanosomiasis.Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenliworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.
World Health Organization.WHO data show unprecedented treatment coverage for bilharzia and intestinal worms.
IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans.Schistosoma haematobium.(IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 100B.)Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Moses A, Adriko M, Kibwika B, Tukahebwa EM, Faust CL, Lamberton PHL.Residence Time, Water Contact, and Age-driven Schistosoma mansoni Infection in Hotspot Communities in Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2021 Oct 18;105(6):1772-1781. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0391. PMID: 34662868; PMCID: PMC8641335.
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Schistosomiasis.
Adeel AA.Spinal cord schistosomiasis.Sudan J Paediatr.2015;15(2):23-8.
Coyle CM.Schistosomiasis of the nervous system.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:271-81. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00022-4
World Health Organization.Echinococcosis.
Pearson, RD.Echinococcsis. Merck Manual Professional Version. Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co., Inc.
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - echinococcosis.
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - trichinellosis (also known as trichinosis).
Pearson, RD.Trichinosis.Merck Manual Professional Version.Kenilworth, NJ: Merck & Co, Inc.
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Paragonimiasis.
Pittella JE.Pathology of CNS parasitic infections.Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;114:65-88. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-53490-3.00005-4
Centers for Disease Control & Prevention.Parasites - angiostrongyliasis (also known as angiostrongylus infection).
Carpio A, Romo ML, Parkhouse RME.Short B, Dua T. Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: Lessons for clinicians and policy makers.Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2016;16(4):401-414. doi:10.1586/14737175.2016.1155454
Carpio, A., Romo, M., Parkhouse, R., Short, B., and T. Dua.Parasitic Diseases of the Central Nervous System: Lessons for Clinicians and Policy Makers.Expert Review in Neurotherapeutics. 16(4):401-414.Finsterer, J., and H. Auer.Parasitoses of the Human Central Nervous System.Journal of Helminthology. 87(3):257-70.Fogang, Y., Savadogo, A., Camara, M. et al.Managing Neurocysticercosis: Challenges and Solutions.International Journal of General Medicine. 8:333-44.Hora, R., Kapoor, P., Thind, K., and P. Mishra.Cerebral Malaria—Clinical Manifestations and Pathogenesis.Metabolic Brain Disease. 31(2):225-37.Kasper, Dennis L.., Anthony S. Fauci, and Stephen L.. Hauser.Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: Mc Graw Hill Education. Print.
Carpio, A., Romo, M., Parkhouse, R., Short, B., and T. Dua.Parasitic Diseases of the Central Nervous System: Lessons for Clinicians and Policy Makers.Expert Review in Neurotherapeutics. 16(4):401-414.
Finsterer, J., and H. Auer.Parasitoses of the Human Central Nervous System.Journal of Helminthology. 87(3):257-70.
Fogang, Y., Savadogo, A., Camara, M. et al.Managing Neurocysticercosis: Challenges and Solutions.International Journal of General Medicine. 8:333-44.
Hora, R., Kapoor, P., Thind, K., and P. Mishra.Cerebral Malaria—Clinical Manifestations and Pathogenesis.Metabolic Brain Disease. 31(2):225-37.
Kasper, Dennis L.., Anthony S. Fauci, and Stephen L.. Hauser.Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: Mc Graw Hill Education. Print.
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