Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsCausesRisk FactorsDiagnosisTreatmentPreventionCoping
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Causes
Risk Factors
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Coping
Having abdominal surgery can sometimes lead to chronic abdominal nerve pain or chronic pelvic nerve pain.
During surgeries like anappendectomy,gynecological surgery, orhernia repair, it’s possible for abdominal or pelvic nerves to get cut, stretched, or damaged in another way.
Chronic Pelvic Nerve Pain
This complication is called surgically-inducedneuropathic pain(SINP).It is unclear how often it happens, but researchers are starting to learn that nerve pain after surgery is probably common.
Studies have suggested that up to 30% of common abdominal surgeries, such ashysterectomiesand hernia repairs, lead to some level of chronic nerve pain.
The statistics can be worrisome if you’re planning to have surgery, but you might be able to do things to reduce the risk. At the same time, researchers are looking for ways to reduce the risk of SINP and effectively treat it if it does happen.
This article will go over what you need to know about the causes of SINP, how it is diagnosed, and how it’s treated.
IAN HOOTON / Getty Images
What Is Chronic Pain
Sometimes, having surgery can damage nerves. This can lead to pain after surgery (postoperative pain).
For example, damage to theilioinguinal,iliohypogastric, orgenitofemoral nerveshas been linked to postoperative pelvic pain.
What Are Border Nerves?The ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, and genitofemoral nerves are sometimes called “border nerves” because they provide sensation to the skin next to the thighs and abdomen.
What Are Border Nerves?
The ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, and genitofemoral nerves are sometimes called “border nerves” because they provide sensation to the skin next to the thighs and abdomen.
With abdominal surgery, there is not always a simple relationship between nerve damage and pain after surgery. Damage to a specific nerve is not necessarily the cause of all postoperative abdominal or pelvic pain.
What Causes Pelvic Nerve Pain?
Severed Nerves
The iliohypogastric andilioinguinalnerves are sometimes “in the line of fire” when a surgeon is in the abdomen and pelvis.
Pelvic Nerve Structure Differences
Pelvic nerves are also in slightly different places or positions in each person. In some people, the nerves sit under the abdominal muscles. In other people, they pass right through them.
Some people also have more pelvic nerve branches than others. That means avoiding pelvic nerve damage during surgery is not always easy.
Stretched Nerves
Nerves do not always have to be cut or nicked to be damaged—stretching nerves can also hurt them.
Nerve Compression and Entrapment
Nerves can become damaged during and after a procedure, sometimes due to patient position. They can be compressed beneath surgical retractors.The nerves can get stuck betweensutures, staples, or surgical mesh(nerve entrapment).
Nerves can also get trapped after surgery (cutaneous nerve entrapment). This happens when nerves near the surface of the abdomen become entrapped as they pass through the abdominal muscle.
Nerve entrapment is thought to cause around 30% of cases of SINP after abdominal surgery.
What Does It Mean If You Have a Pinched Nerve?
In the same way that the exact cause of SINP is unknown, it’s not known which risk factors make a person more likely to have postoperative chronic nerve pain.
Some of the possible risk factors include:
The most common predictor of SINP is how much pain a person is in right after surgery. The worse the acute pain is, the higher the person’s risk of SINP.
Causes of Chronic Postoperative Pain
A diagnosis of SINP is not always easy to make. In some cases, healthcare providers may not be able to pinpoint the cause of someone’s pain.
The diagnosis can also be challenging because one person’s experience of pain can be very different from another person’s experience.
Providers can do a physical exam, use pain scale scoring, and order imaging tests to rule out other explanations for a person’s pain. At that point, they would likely attribute the lasting pain to SINP.
Exam and Medical History
You will need to see your provider for an in-person office visit if you have post-surgery pain.
They will ask you questions about the type of pain you’re having. They will ask you to describe how it feels—for example, you might say “like pins-and-needles,” “stabbing,” or “burning.”
What Does Nerve Pain Feel Like?
Pain Scale Scoring
To more objectively rate how much pain you are in, a provider can use a simple survey called aneuropathic pain scale (NPS).
The scale scores your pain symptoms on a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 is no pain and 10 is the worst pain you have ever felt.
Imaging
You may need to have imaging studies to look for nerve injuries. For example,computed tomography (CT)ormagnetic resonance imaging (MRI)scans help your provider see inside different parts of your body more closely.
Newer imaging technologies are being developed to get better images at the cellular and even molecular level.
If your pain gets better after the injection, that helps your provider know which nerve to treat.
For chronic abdominal nerve pain that does not get better on its own following surgery, there are a few options for treatment.
Medications
These medications were not initially made for treating pain, but they have helped treat some pain conditions.
Antidepressants are prescribed for chronic pain because they act on pain receptors in the brain—not because your provider thinks the pain is “all in your head.”
What to Do If Your Provider Tells You “It’s All in Your Head”
Nerve Blocks
Nerve blocks, or neural blockades, can help prevent or manage many different types of pain. They involve injections of medicines that block pain signals from specific nerves.
TENS
Transcutaneouselectrical nerve stimulation (TENS)is a therapy that uses low-voltage electrical currents to provide pain relief.
A TENS unit is a battery-powered device that delivers electrical impulses through electrodes that are placed on the skin.
TENS has helped some people cope with intractable (treatment-resistant) nerve pain.
Review of the Omron MAX Power TENS Unit
Surgery
In some cases, your provider may offer surgery as an option to reconnect severed nerves. There are a couple of different types of surgeries to repair nerves.
During a nerve repair, a surgeon removes the damaged section of nerve tissue and reattaches the healthy ends.
A nerve graft involves using nerve segments taken from another part of the body to repair damaged nerves.
How to Treat Chronic Postoperative Pain
Acute postoperative pain is strongly linked with the risk for developing chronic pain. That’s why it’s important that you tell your provider if you’re in pain after surgery.
Approaches that limit opioid use while combining more than one therapy, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), have been shown to be effective.Studies have shown that aggressive, up-front pain management after surgery is linked to better pain control after.
Talk to your surgeon about how much pain you can expect to feel after surgery.
Understanding Surgery Risks
Most studies suggest that the best nerve pain treatment is a combination of medications, medical therapies, and lifestyle measures. There are several things you can do to cope as you try to find the best management strategy for you.
Keep a Pain Journal
Writing about your experience can be very helpful when dealing with chronic pain.
Not only can it help you better understand your pain and give you a way to share your symptoms with your healthcare provider, but journaling can also be an effective way to figure out what works and what doesn’t work in terms of managing your symptoms.
Explore Mind-Body Therapies
Mind-body therapies such asmeditation,breathing exercises, and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can decrease your pain and decrease the stress in your life that make your pain worse.
Seek Support
Talking with others about your experiences can help relieve the stress of being in pain.
Being part of achronic pain support groupcan provide you with the opportunity to ask questions, get referrals, or share your experiences with others who understand what you are going through.
Coping With Pain After Hernia Surgery
Summary
Chronic nerve pain after surgery is sometimes called surgically-induced neuropathic pain (SINP).
The treatment for SINP can include medication, nerve blockers, TENS therapy, or surgical repair.
Acute post-surgical pain is strongly linked to chronic post-surgical pain. Therefore, the best prevention is to manage post-surgical pain as well as possible.
The Different Types of Nerve Pain
A Word From Verywell
If you’re worried about an upcoming surgery causing you lasting pain, keep in mind that most people who have abdominal surgery do not develop chronic nerve pain.
More research is being done all the time. The results of these studies can give surgeons better techniques to use to avoid damaging nerves during procedures.
When you’re considering or preparing for surgery, ask questions to make sure you are making an informed decision. If you don’t feel you have all the information you need or you feel that your provider is not listening to your concerns, you might want to get a second opinion.
When to Get a Second Opinion
22 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Hindman NM, Kang S, Parikh MS.Common postoperative findings unique to laparoscopic surgery.Radiographics. 2014;34(1):119-138. doi:10.1148/rg.341125181Borsook D, Kussman BD, George E, Becerra LR, Burke DW.Surgically induced neuropathic pain: understanding the perioperative process.Ann Surg. 2013 Mar;257(3):403-412. doi:10.1097/SLA.0b013e3182701a7bKhoshmohabat H, Panahi F, Alvandi AA, Mehrvarz S, Mohebi HA, Shams Koushik E.Effect of ilioinguinal neurectomy on chronic pain following herniorrhaphy.Trauma Mon. 2012;17(3):323-328. doi:10.5812/traumamon.6581Bugada D, Peng PWH.Ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, and genitofemoral nerve blocks. In:Regional Nerve Blocks in Anesthesia and Pain Therapy. Springer International Publishing; 2015:707-715. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05131-4_54Bjurstrom MF, Nicol AL, Amid PK, Chen DC.Pain control following inguinal herniorrhaphy: current perspectives.J Pain Res. 2014;7:277-290. doi:10.2147/JPR.S47005Rab M, Ebmer and J, Dellon AL.Anatomic variability of the ilioinguinal and genitofemoral nerve: implications for the treatment of groin pain.Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;108(6):1618-1623. doi:10.1097/00006534-200111000-00029Vajapey SP, Contreras ES, Cvetanovich GL, Neviaser AS.Neurologic complications in primary anatomic and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: a review.J Clin Orthop Trauma. 2021 Jun 9;20:101475. doi:10.1016/j.jcot.2021.06.005Chrona E, Kostopanagiotou G, Damigos D, Batistaki C.Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome: management challenges.J Pain Res. 2017;10:145-156. doi:10.2147/JPR.S99337Correll D.Chronic postoperative pain: recent findings in understanding and management.F1000Res.2017;6:1054. doi:10.12688/f1000research.11101.1Searle RC, Howell SJ, Bennett MI.Diagnosing postoperative neuropathic pain: a Delphi survey.Br J Anaesth.2012;109 (2):240-244. doi:10.1093/bja/aes147Tung KW, Behara D, Biswal S.Neuropathic pain mechanisms and imaging.Semin Musculoskelet Radiol.2015;19(2):103-111. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1547371Harvard Heath Publishing.Drugs that relieve nerve pain.Derry S, Bell RF, Straube S, Wiffen PJ, Aldington D, Moore RA.Pregabalin for neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Pain, Palliative and Supportive Care Group, ed.Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Published online January 23, 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007076.pub3Cleveland Clinic.Hypogastric plexus block.DeSantana JM, Walsh DM, Vance C, Rakel BA, Sluka KA.Effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for treatment of hyperalgesia and pain.Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2008;10(6):492-499. doi:10.1007/s11926-008-0080-zGrinsell D, Keating CP.Peripheral nerve reconstruction after injury: a review of clinical and experimental therapies.Biomed Res Int.2014;2014:698256. doi:10.1155/2014/698256Pirie K, Traer E, Finniss D, Myles PS, Riedel B.Current approaches to acute postoperative pain management after major abdominal surgery: a narrative review and future directions.Br J Anaesth. 2022 Sep;129(3):378-393. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2022.05.029Bruce J, Quinlan J.Chronic post surgical pain.Rev Pain. 2011;5(3):23-29. doi:10.1177/204946371100500306Cleveland Clinic.Pain control after surgery.Benioff Children’s Hospital San Francisco.Chronic abdominal pain.Zeidan F, Emerson NM, Farris SR, et al.Mindfulness meditation-based pain relief employs different neural mechanisms than placebo and sham mindfulness meditation-induced analgesia.Journal of Neuroscience. 2015;35(46):15307-15325. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2542-15.2015Driscoll MA, Edwards RR, Becker WC, Kaptchuk TJ, Kerns RD.Psychological interventions for the treatment of chronic pain in adults.Psychol Sci Public Interest. 2021;22(2):52-95. doi:10.1177/15291006211008157
22 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Hindman NM, Kang S, Parikh MS.Common postoperative findings unique to laparoscopic surgery.Radiographics. 2014;34(1):119-138. doi:10.1148/rg.341125181Borsook D, Kussman BD, George E, Becerra LR, Burke DW.Surgically induced neuropathic pain: understanding the perioperative process.Ann Surg. 2013 Mar;257(3):403-412. doi:10.1097/SLA.0b013e3182701a7bKhoshmohabat H, Panahi F, Alvandi AA, Mehrvarz S, Mohebi HA, Shams Koushik E.Effect of ilioinguinal neurectomy on chronic pain following herniorrhaphy.Trauma Mon. 2012;17(3):323-328. doi:10.5812/traumamon.6581Bugada D, Peng PWH.Ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, and genitofemoral nerve blocks. In:Regional Nerve Blocks in Anesthesia and Pain Therapy. Springer International Publishing; 2015:707-715. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05131-4_54Bjurstrom MF, Nicol AL, Amid PK, Chen DC.Pain control following inguinal herniorrhaphy: current perspectives.J Pain Res. 2014;7:277-290. doi:10.2147/JPR.S47005Rab M, Ebmer and J, Dellon AL.Anatomic variability of the ilioinguinal and genitofemoral nerve: implications for the treatment of groin pain.Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;108(6):1618-1623. doi:10.1097/00006534-200111000-00029Vajapey SP, Contreras ES, Cvetanovich GL, Neviaser AS.Neurologic complications in primary anatomic and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: a review.J Clin Orthop Trauma. 2021 Jun 9;20:101475. doi:10.1016/j.jcot.2021.06.005Chrona E, Kostopanagiotou G, Damigos D, Batistaki C.Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome: management challenges.J Pain Res. 2017;10:145-156. doi:10.2147/JPR.S99337Correll D.Chronic postoperative pain: recent findings in understanding and management.F1000Res.2017;6:1054. doi:10.12688/f1000research.11101.1Searle RC, Howell SJ, Bennett MI.Diagnosing postoperative neuropathic pain: a Delphi survey.Br J Anaesth.2012;109 (2):240-244. doi:10.1093/bja/aes147Tung KW, Behara D, Biswal S.Neuropathic pain mechanisms and imaging.Semin Musculoskelet Radiol.2015;19(2):103-111. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1547371Harvard Heath Publishing.Drugs that relieve nerve pain.Derry S, Bell RF, Straube S, Wiffen PJ, Aldington D, Moore RA.Pregabalin for neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Pain, Palliative and Supportive Care Group, ed.Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Published online January 23, 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007076.pub3Cleveland Clinic.Hypogastric plexus block.DeSantana JM, Walsh DM, Vance C, Rakel BA, Sluka KA.Effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for treatment of hyperalgesia and pain.Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2008;10(6):492-499. doi:10.1007/s11926-008-0080-zGrinsell D, Keating CP.Peripheral nerve reconstruction after injury: a review of clinical and experimental therapies.Biomed Res Int.2014;2014:698256. doi:10.1155/2014/698256Pirie K, Traer E, Finniss D, Myles PS, Riedel B.Current approaches to acute postoperative pain management after major abdominal surgery: a narrative review and future directions.Br J Anaesth. 2022 Sep;129(3):378-393. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2022.05.029Bruce J, Quinlan J.Chronic post surgical pain.Rev Pain. 2011;5(3):23-29. doi:10.1177/204946371100500306Cleveland Clinic.Pain control after surgery.Benioff Children’s Hospital San Francisco.Chronic abdominal pain.Zeidan F, Emerson NM, Farris SR, et al.Mindfulness meditation-based pain relief employs different neural mechanisms than placebo and sham mindfulness meditation-induced analgesia.Journal of Neuroscience. 2015;35(46):15307-15325. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2542-15.2015Driscoll MA, Edwards RR, Becker WC, Kaptchuk TJ, Kerns RD.Psychological interventions for the treatment of chronic pain in adults.Psychol Sci Public Interest. 2021;22(2):52-95. doi:10.1177/15291006211008157
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Hindman NM, Kang S, Parikh MS.Common postoperative findings unique to laparoscopic surgery.Radiographics. 2014;34(1):119-138. doi:10.1148/rg.341125181Borsook D, Kussman BD, George E, Becerra LR, Burke DW.Surgically induced neuropathic pain: understanding the perioperative process.Ann Surg. 2013 Mar;257(3):403-412. doi:10.1097/SLA.0b013e3182701a7bKhoshmohabat H, Panahi F, Alvandi AA, Mehrvarz S, Mohebi HA, Shams Koushik E.Effect of ilioinguinal neurectomy on chronic pain following herniorrhaphy.Trauma Mon. 2012;17(3):323-328. doi:10.5812/traumamon.6581Bugada D, Peng PWH.Ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, and genitofemoral nerve blocks. In:Regional Nerve Blocks in Anesthesia and Pain Therapy. Springer International Publishing; 2015:707-715. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05131-4_54Bjurstrom MF, Nicol AL, Amid PK, Chen DC.Pain control following inguinal herniorrhaphy: current perspectives.J Pain Res. 2014;7:277-290. doi:10.2147/JPR.S47005Rab M, Ebmer and J, Dellon AL.Anatomic variability of the ilioinguinal and genitofemoral nerve: implications for the treatment of groin pain.Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;108(6):1618-1623. doi:10.1097/00006534-200111000-00029Vajapey SP, Contreras ES, Cvetanovich GL, Neviaser AS.Neurologic complications in primary anatomic and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: a review.J Clin Orthop Trauma. 2021 Jun 9;20:101475. doi:10.1016/j.jcot.2021.06.005Chrona E, Kostopanagiotou G, Damigos D, Batistaki C.Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome: management challenges.J Pain Res. 2017;10:145-156. doi:10.2147/JPR.S99337Correll D.Chronic postoperative pain: recent findings in understanding and management.F1000Res.2017;6:1054. doi:10.12688/f1000research.11101.1Searle RC, Howell SJ, Bennett MI.Diagnosing postoperative neuropathic pain: a Delphi survey.Br J Anaesth.2012;109 (2):240-244. doi:10.1093/bja/aes147Tung KW, Behara D, Biswal S.Neuropathic pain mechanisms and imaging.Semin Musculoskelet Radiol.2015;19(2):103-111. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1547371Harvard Heath Publishing.Drugs that relieve nerve pain.Derry S, Bell RF, Straube S, Wiffen PJ, Aldington D, Moore RA.Pregabalin for neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Pain, Palliative and Supportive Care Group, ed.Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Published online January 23, 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007076.pub3Cleveland Clinic.Hypogastric plexus block.DeSantana JM, Walsh DM, Vance C, Rakel BA, Sluka KA.Effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for treatment of hyperalgesia and pain.Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2008;10(6):492-499. doi:10.1007/s11926-008-0080-zGrinsell D, Keating CP.Peripheral nerve reconstruction after injury: a review of clinical and experimental therapies.Biomed Res Int.2014;2014:698256. doi:10.1155/2014/698256Pirie K, Traer E, Finniss D, Myles PS, Riedel B.Current approaches to acute postoperative pain management after major abdominal surgery: a narrative review and future directions.Br J Anaesth. 2022 Sep;129(3):378-393. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2022.05.029Bruce J, Quinlan J.Chronic post surgical pain.Rev Pain. 2011;5(3):23-29. doi:10.1177/204946371100500306Cleveland Clinic.Pain control after surgery.Benioff Children’s Hospital San Francisco.Chronic abdominal pain.Zeidan F, Emerson NM, Farris SR, et al.Mindfulness meditation-based pain relief employs different neural mechanisms than placebo and sham mindfulness meditation-induced analgesia.Journal of Neuroscience. 2015;35(46):15307-15325. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2542-15.2015Driscoll MA, Edwards RR, Becker WC, Kaptchuk TJ, Kerns RD.Psychological interventions for the treatment of chronic pain in adults.Psychol Sci Public Interest. 2021;22(2):52-95. doi:10.1177/15291006211008157
Hindman NM, Kang S, Parikh MS.Common postoperative findings unique to laparoscopic surgery.Radiographics. 2014;34(1):119-138. doi:10.1148/rg.341125181
Borsook D, Kussman BD, George E, Becerra LR, Burke DW.Surgically induced neuropathic pain: understanding the perioperative process.Ann Surg. 2013 Mar;257(3):403-412. doi:10.1097/SLA.0b013e3182701a7b
Khoshmohabat H, Panahi F, Alvandi AA, Mehrvarz S, Mohebi HA, Shams Koushik E.Effect of ilioinguinal neurectomy on chronic pain following herniorrhaphy.Trauma Mon. 2012;17(3):323-328. doi:10.5812/traumamon.6581
Bugada D, Peng PWH.Ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, and genitofemoral nerve blocks. In:Regional Nerve Blocks in Anesthesia and Pain Therapy. Springer International Publishing; 2015:707-715. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05131-4_54
Bjurstrom MF, Nicol AL, Amid PK, Chen DC.Pain control following inguinal herniorrhaphy: current perspectives.J Pain Res. 2014;7:277-290. doi:10.2147/JPR.S47005
Rab M, Ebmer and J, Dellon AL.Anatomic variability of the ilioinguinal and genitofemoral nerve: implications for the treatment of groin pain.Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;108(6):1618-1623. doi:10.1097/00006534-200111000-00029
Vajapey SP, Contreras ES, Cvetanovich GL, Neviaser AS.Neurologic complications in primary anatomic and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: a review.J Clin Orthop Trauma. 2021 Jun 9;20:101475. doi:10.1016/j.jcot.2021.06.005
Chrona E, Kostopanagiotou G, Damigos D, Batistaki C.Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome: management challenges.J Pain Res. 2017;10:145-156. doi:10.2147/JPR.S99337
Correll D.Chronic postoperative pain: recent findings in understanding and management.F1000Res.2017;6:1054. doi:10.12688/f1000research.11101.1
Searle RC, Howell SJ, Bennett MI.Diagnosing postoperative neuropathic pain: a Delphi survey.Br J Anaesth.2012;109 (2):240-244. doi:10.1093/bja/aes147
Tung KW, Behara D, Biswal S.Neuropathic pain mechanisms and imaging.Semin Musculoskelet Radiol.2015;19(2):103-111. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1547371
Harvard Heath Publishing.Drugs that relieve nerve pain.
Derry S, Bell RF, Straube S, Wiffen PJ, Aldington D, Moore RA.Pregabalin for neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Pain, Palliative and Supportive Care Group, ed.Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Published online January 23, 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007076.pub3
Cleveland Clinic.Hypogastric plexus block.
DeSantana JM, Walsh DM, Vance C, Rakel BA, Sluka KA.Effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for treatment of hyperalgesia and pain.Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2008;10(6):492-499. doi:10.1007/s11926-008-0080-z
Grinsell D, Keating CP.Peripheral nerve reconstruction after injury: a review of clinical and experimental therapies.Biomed Res Int.2014;2014:698256. doi:10.1155/2014/698256
Pirie K, Traer E, Finniss D, Myles PS, Riedel B.Current approaches to acute postoperative pain management after major abdominal surgery: a narrative review and future directions.Br J Anaesth. 2022 Sep;129(3):378-393. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2022.05.029
Bruce J, Quinlan J.Chronic post surgical pain.Rev Pain. 2011;5(3):23-29. doi:10.1177/204946371100500306
Cleveland Clinic.Pain control after surgery.
Benioff Children’s Hospital San Francisco.Chronic abdominal pain.
Zeidan F, Emerson NM, Farris SR, et al.Mindfulness meditation-based pain relief employs different neural mechanisms than placebo and sham mindfulness meditation-induced analgesia.Journal of Neuroscience. 2015;35(46):15307-15325. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2542-15.2015
Driscoll MA, Edwards RR, Becker WC, Kaptchuk TJ, Kerns RD.Psychological interventions for the treatment of chronic pain in adults.Psychol Sci Public Interest. 2021;22(2):52-95. doi:10.1177/15291006211008157
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