Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsSymptomsCausesDiagnosisResearch
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Symptoms
Causes
Diagnosis
Research
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In the United States, the condition occurs in about 1 in every 365 African-American births and 1 in every 16,000 Hispanic-American births.It is not common in caucasian and Asian populations.
Sickle cell disease is genetic, and due to the pattern of inheritance, it can affect you or your child even without a family history of the condition.There are a few different types of sickle cell disease, including sickle cell anemia and hemoglobin SC disease. The diagnosis is typically made with infant screening blood tests.
There is no cure for sickle cell disease, but the condition can be managed with a variety of treatment strategies.
This condition can also cause chronic problems, such as impaired childhood development and persistent fatigue. With sickle cell disease, serious health effects can occur due to blood clots and/or low oxygen.
Common effects of sickle cell disease include:
Complications
Serious effects of sickle cell disease include:
With sickle cell disease, blood clots can also develop in the blood vessels of the heart (causing a heart attack), liver (causing liver failure) and/or kidneys (impairing kidney function).
Any of these life-threatening effects of sickle cell disease can occur anytime during childhood or adulthood.
Sickle cell disease is inherited. It is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means that in order to develop the condition, a person must inherit the disease-causing gene from both parents.
It tends to run in families whose ancestors come from Africa, Spanish-speaking regions of the world, southeast Asia, and Mediterranean regions.
Hemoglobin
In sickle cell disease, the hemoglobin molecules have a slightly altered structure that cancause red blood cells to ruptureand form a sickle shape (instead of their regular smooth shape).
Hemoglobin Structure and Function
The sickle-shaped red blood cells are sticky and have trouble passing through small blood vessels in the body. The cells get stuck, clump together, and block the flow of blood.
Trapped red blood cells are the source of many of the effects of sickle cell disease, such as pain and acute chest syndrome.
Anemia
Typically, red blood cells last for several months. However, red blood cells may only last for a few weeks with sickle cell disease. Even though you constantly produce new red blood cells, your body can’t keep up with the demand when you have sickle cell disease.
Red blood cells carry oxygen to provide your body with energy. Thisdiminished amount of red blood cellsleads to low energy and low blood pressure.
There are several types of sickle cell disease, and they differ based on the specific hemoglobin defect. A blood test can differentiate the types of sickle cell disease.
Types of sickle cell disease include:
Genetic Testing
Genetic tests can be used to identify mutations (gene alterations) that cause sickle cell disease.In general, genetic tests are not a standard part of screening for sickle cell disease, but they can be used to help pinpoint the genetic defect to help in the decision-making process for certain types of treatment (such as a bone marrow transplant).
Treatment
It is important that you maintain regularly scheduled visits with your healthcare provider if you have sickle-cell disease. And you may also need to have prompt medical attention for the treatment of acute symptoms, like pain or infections.
Preventative management, such asimmunizations, are also part of the therapeutic plan in sickle cell disease.
Keep in mind that there is a range in severity of sickle cell disease, so you may need all or only a few of these treatment approaches, depending on the type of sickle cell disease that you have and your symptoms.
Treatments used in sickle cell disease include;
The modified cells are resistant to sickling, which reduces symptoms of sickle cell disease. These treatments are not a cure for sickle cell anemia but are designed to be a one-time treatment to alleviate symptoms for a lifetime.
Sickle cell disease can increase the risk of certain complications duringpregnancy(such as blood clots), so you will need to have close prenatal care so that issues can be prevented, detected, and treated.
A Word From Verywell
As research is advancing in the treatment of sickle cell disease, new treatment options such asgene therapymay emerge. Sickle cell disease can have a major impact on your life. A sickle cell crisis can be unpredictable, and you may need urgent treatment. With medical treatment, you can achieve a good outcome and avoid long term consequences of disease complications.
28 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ballas SK, Kesen MR, Goldberg MF, et al.Beyond the definitions of the phenotypic complications of sickle cell disease: an update on management[published correction appears in ScientificWorldJournal. 2013;2013:861251].ScientificWorldJournal. 2012;2012:949535. doi:10.1100/2012/949535Data & Statistics on Sickle Cell Disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Serjeant GR.The natural history of sickle cell disease.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2013;3(10):a011783. Published 2013 Oct 1. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011783Gardner RV.Sickle Cell Disease: Advances in Treatment.Ochsner J. 2018;18(4):377–389. doi:10.31486/toj.18.0076Borhade MB.Sickle Cell Crisis. StatPearls [Internet].Ilesanmi OO.Pathological basis of symptoms and crises in sickle cell disorder: implications for counseling and psychotherapy.Hematol Rep. 2010;2(1):e2. doi:10.4081/hr.2010.e2Cannas G, Merazga S, Virot E.Sickle Cell Disease and Infections in High- and Low-Income Countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019042. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.042Shih A, Kassanoff RE, Altrabulsi B.Severe anemia.Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2001;14(3):289–293. doi:10.1080/08998280.2001.11927775Njeze GE.Gallstones.Niger J Surg. 2013;19(2):49–55. doi:10.4103/1117-6806.119236Ekeke ON, Omunakwe HE, Eke N.Management of priapism in adult men.Int Surg. 2015;100(3):552–557. doi:10.9738/INTSURG-D-13-00223.1Paul RN, Castro OL, Aggarwal A, Oneal PA.Acute chest syndrome: sickle cell disease. Eur J Haematol. 2011;87(3):191-207. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2011.01647.xScott AW.Ophthalmic Manifestations of Sickle Cell Disease. South Med J. 2016;109(9):542-8. doi:10.14423/SMJ.0000000000000525Brandow AM, Liem R.Sickle Cell Disease in the Emergency Department: Atypical Complications and Management.Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2011;12(3):202–212. doi:10.1016/j.cpem.2011.07.003Shah KN, Racine J, Jones LC, Aaron RK.Pathophysiology and risk factors for osteonecrosis.Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2015;8(3):201–209. doi:10.1007/s12178-015-9277-8Vallance H, Ford J.Carrier testing for autosomal-recessive disorders. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2003;40(4):473-97. doi:10.1080/10408360390247832Sickle cell disease - Genetics Home Reference - NIH. U.S. National Library of Medicine.Li X, Dao M, Lykotrafitis G, Karniadakis GE.Biomechanics and biorheology of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia.J Biomech. 2017;50:34–41. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.11.022Ferrone FA.Polymerization and sickle cell disease: a molecular view. Microcirculation. 2004;11(2):115-28. doi:10.1080/10739680490278312Tewari S, Brousse V, Piel FB, Menzel S, Rees DC.Environmental determinants of severity in sickle cell disease.Haematologica. 2015;100(9):1108–1116. doi:10.3324/haematol.2014.120030Rose NC, Dolan SM.Newborn screening and the obstetrician.Obstet Gynecol. 2012;120(4):908–917. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31826b2f03Saraf SL, Molokie RE, Nouraie M, et al.Differences in the clinical and genotypic presentation of sickle cell disease around the world.Paediatr Respir Rev. 2014;15(1):4–12. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2013.11.003Bender MA.Sickle Cell Disease. GeneReviews® [Internet].Ansong D, Akoto AO, Ocloo D, Ohene-Frempong K.Sickle cell disease: management options and challenges in developing countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2013;5(1):e2013062. Published 2013 Nov 4. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2013.062Agrawal RK, Patel RK, Shah V, Nainiwal L, Trivedi B.Hydroxyurea in sickle cell disease: drug review.Indian J Hematol Blood Transfus. 2014;30(2):91–96. doi:10.1007/s12288-013-0261-4Food and Drug Administration.FDA Approves First Gene Therapies to Treat Patients with Sickle Cell Disease.Food and Drug Administration.Casgevy.Food and Drug Administration.Lyfgenia.Jain D, Atmapoojya P, Colah R, Lodha P.Sickle Cell Disease and Pregnancy.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019040. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.040Additional ReadingPirenne F.The cause and pathogenesis of hemolytic transfusion reactions in sickle-cell disease.Curr Opin Hematol. 2019 Nov;26(6):488-494. doi:10.1097/MOH.0000000000000546Therrell BL Jr, Lloyd-Puryear MA, Eckman JR, Mann MY.Newborn screening for sickle cell diseases in the United States: A review of data spanning 2 decades.Semin Perinatol.2015 Apr;39(3):238-51. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2015.03.008
28 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ballas SK, Kesen MR, Goldberg MF, et al.Beyond the definitions of the phenotypic complications of sickle cell disease: an update on management[published correction appears in ScientificWorldJournal. 2013;2013:861251].ScientificWorldJournal. 2012;2012:949535. doi:10.1100/2012/949535Data & Statistics on Sickle Cell Disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Serjeant GR.The natural history of sickle cell disease.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2013;3(10):a011783. Published 2013 Oct 1. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011783Gardner RV.Sickle Cell Disease: Advances in Treatment.Ochsner J. 2018;18(4):377–389. doi:10.31486/toj.18.0076Borhade MB.Sickle Cell Crisis. StatPearls [Internet].Ilesanmi OO.Pathological basis of symptoms and crises in sickle cell disorder: implications for counseling and psychotherapy.Hematol Rep. 2010;2(1):e2. doi:10.4081/hr.2010.e2Cannas G, Merazga S, Virot E.Sickle Cell Disease and Infections in High- and Low-Income Countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019042. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.042Shih A, Kassanoff RE, Altrabulsi B.Severe anemia.Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2001;14(3):289–293. doi:10.1080/08998280.2001.11927775Njeze GE.Gallstones.Niger J Surg. 2013;19(2):49–55. doi:10.4103/1117-6806.119236Ekeke ON, Omunakwe HE, Eke N.Management of priapism in adult men.Int Surg. 2015;100(3):552–557. doi:10.9738/INTSURG-D-13-00223.1Paul RN, Castro OL, Aggarwal A, Oneal PA.Acute chest syndrome: sickle cell disease. Eur J Haematol. 2011;87(3):191-207. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2011.01647.xScott AW.Ophthalmic Manifestations of Sickle Cell Disease. South Med J. 2016;109(9):542-8. doi:10.14423/SMJ.0000000000000525Brandow AM, Liem R.Sickle Cell Disease in the Emergency Department: Atypical Complications and Management.Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2011;12(3):202–212. doi:10.1016/j.cpem.2011.07.003Shah KN, Racine J, Jones LC, Aaron RK.Pathophysiology and risk factors for osteonecrosis.Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2015;8(3):201–209. doi:10.1007/s12178-015-9277-8Vallance H, Ford J.Carrier testing for autosomal-recessive disorders. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2003;40(4):473-97. doi:10.1080/10408360390247832Sickle cell disease - Genetics Home Reference - NIH. U.S. National Library of Medicine.Li X, Dao M, Lykotrafitis G, Karniadakis GE.Biomechanics and biorheology of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia.J Biomech. 2017;50:34–41. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.11.022Ferrone FA.Polymerization and sickle cell disease: a molecular view. Microcirculation. 2004;11(2):115-28. doi:10.1080/10739680490278312Tewari S, Brousse V, Piel FB, Menzel S, Rees DC.Environmental determinants of severity in sickle cell disease.Haematologica. 2015;100(9):1108–1116. doi:10.3324/haematol.2014.120030Rose NC, Dolan SM.Newborn screening and the obstetrician.Obstet Gynecol. 2012;120(4):908–917. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31826b2f03Saraf SL, Molokie RE, Nouraie M, et al.Differences in the clinical and genotypic presentation of sickle cell disease around the world.Paediatr Respir Rev. 2014;15(1):4–12. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2013.11.003Bender MA.Sickle Cell Disease. GeneReviews® [Internet].Ansong D, Akoto AO, Ocloo D, Ohene-Frempong K.Sickle cell disease: management options and challenges in developing countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2013;5(1):e2013062. Published 2013 Nov 4. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2013.062Agrawal RK, Patel RK, Shah V, Nainiwal L, Trivedi B.Hydroxyurea in sickle cell disease: drug review.Indian J Hematol Blood Transfus. 2014;30(2):91–96. doi:10.1007/s12288-013-0261-4Food and Drug Administration.FDA Approves First Gene Therapies to Treat Patients with Sickle Cell Disease.Food and Drug Administration.Casgevy.Food and Drug Administration.Lyfgenia.Jain D, Atmapoojya P, Colah R, Lodha P.Sickle Cell Disease and Pregnancy.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019040. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.040Additional ReadingPirenne F.The cause and pathogenesis of hemolytic transfusion reactions in sickle-cell disease.Curr Opin Hematol. 2019 Nov;26(6):488-494. doi:10.1097/MOH.0000000000000546Therrell BL Jr, Lloyd-Puryear MA, Eckman JR, Mann MY.Newborn screening for sickle cell diseases in the United States: A review of data spanning 2 decades.Semin Perinatol.2015 Apr;39(3):238-51. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2015.03.008
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Ballas SK, Kesen MR, Goldberg MF, et al.Beyond the definitions of the phenotypic complications of sickle cell disease: an update on management[published correction appears in ScientificWorldJournal. 2013;2013:861251].ScientificWorldJournal. 2012;2012:949535. doi:10.1100/2012/949535Data & Statistics on Sickle Cell Disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Serjeant GR.The natural history of sickle cell disease.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2013;3(10):a011783. Published 2013 Oct 1. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011783Gardner RV.Sickle Cell Disease: Advances in Treatment.Ochsner J. 2018;18(4):377–389. doi:10.31486/toj.18.0076Borhade MB.Sickle Cell Crisis. StatPearls [Internet].Ilesanmi OO.Pathological basis of symptoms and crises in sickle cell disorder: implications for counseling and psychotherapy.Hematol Rep. 2010;2(1):e2. doi:10.4081/hr.2010.e2Cannas G, Merazga S, Virot E.Sickle Cell Disease and Infections in High- and Low-Income Countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019042. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.042Shih A, Kassanoff RE, Altrabulsi B.Severe anemia.Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2001;14(3):289–293. doi:10.1080/08998280.2001.11927775Njeze GE.Gallstones.Niger J Surg. 2013;19(2):49–55. doi:10.4103/1117-6806.119236Ekeke ON, Omunakwe HE, Eke N.Management of priapism in adult men.Int Surg. 2015;100(3):552–557. doi:10.9738/INTSURG-D-13-00223.1Paul RN, Castro OL, Aggarwal A, Oneal PA.Acute chest syndrome: sickle cell disease. Eur J Haematol. 2011;87(3):191-207. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2011.01647.xScott AW.Ophthalmic Manifestations of Sickle Cell Disease. South Med J. 2016;109(9):542-8. doi:10.14423/SMJ.0000000000000525Brandow AM, Liem R.Sickle Cell Disease in the Emergency Department: Atypical Complications and Management.Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2011;12(3):202–212. doi:10.1016/j.cpem.2011.07.003Shah KN, Racine J, Jones LC, Aaron RK.Pathophysiology and risk factors for osteonecrosis.Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2015;8(3):201–209. doi:10.1007/s12178-015-9277-8Vallance H, Ford J.Carrier testing for autosomal-recessive disorders. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2003;40(4):473-97. doi:10.1080/10408360390247832Sickle cell disease - Genetics Home Reference - NIH. U.S. National Library of Medicine.Li X, Dao M, Lykotrafitis G, Karniadakis GE.Biomechanics and biorheology of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia.J Biomech. 2017;50:34–41. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.11.022Ferrone FA.Polymerization and sickle cell disease: a molecular view. Microcirculation. 2004;11(2):115-28. doi:10.1080/10739680490278312Tewari S, Brousse V, Piel FB, Menzel S, Rees DC.Environmental determinants of severity in sickle cell disease.Haematologica. 2015;100(9):1108–1116. doi:10.3324/haematol.2014.120030Rose NC, Dolan SM.Newborn screening and the obstetrician.Obstet Gynecol. 2012;120(4):908–917. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31826b2f03Saraf SL, Molokie RE, Nouraie M, et al.Differences in the clinical and genotypic presentation of sickle cell disease around the world.Paediatr Respir Rev. 2014;15(1):4–12. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2013.11.003Bender MA.Sickle Cell Disease. GeneReviews® [Internet].Ansong D, Akoto AO, Ocloo D, Ohene-Frempong K.Sickle cell disease: management options and challenges in developing countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2013;5(1):e2013062. Published 2013 Nov 4. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2013.062Agrawal RK, Patel RK, Shah V, Nainiwal L, Trivedi B.Hydroxyurea in sickle cell disease: drug review.Indian J Hematol Blood Transfus. 2014;30(2):91–96. doi:10.1007/s12288-013-0261-4Food and Drug Administration.FDA Approves First Gene Therapies to Treat Patients with Sickle Cell Disease.Food and Drug Administration.Casgevy.Food and Drug Administration.Lyfgenia.Jain D, Atmapoojya P, Colah R, Lodha P.Sickle Cell Disease and Pregnancy.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019040. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.040
Ballas SK, Kesen MR, Goldberg MF, et al.Beyond the definitions of the phenotypic complications of sickle cell disease: an update on management[published correction appears in ScientificWorldJournal. 2013;2013:861251].ScientificWorldJournal. 2012;2012:949535. doi:10.1100/2012/949535
Data & Statistics on Sickle Cell Disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Serjeant GR.The natural history of sickle cell disease.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2013;3(10):a011783. Published 2013 Oct 1. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011783
Gardner RV.Sickle Cell Disease: Advances in Treatment.Ochsner J. 2018;18(4):377–389. doi:10.31486/toj.18.0076
Borhade MB.Sickle Cell Crisis. StatPearls [Internet].
Ilesanmi OO.Pathological basis of symptoms and crises in sickle cell disorder: implications for counseling and psychotherapy.Hematol Rep. 2010;2(1):e2. doi:10.4081/hr.2010.e2
Cannas G, Merazga S, Virot E.Sickle Cell Disease and Infections in High- and Low-Income Countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019042. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.042
Shih A, Kassanoff RE, Altrabulsi B.Severe anemia.Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2001;14(3):289–293. doi:10.1080/08998280.2001.11927775
Njeze GE.Gallstones.Niger J Surg. 2013;19(2):49–55. doi:10.4103/1117-6806.119236
Ekeke ON, Omunakwe HE, Eke N.Management of priapism in adult men.Int Surg. 2015;100(3):552–557. doi:10.9738/INTSURG-D-13-00223.1
Paul RN, Castro OL, Aggarwal A, Oneal PA.Acute chest syndrome: sickle cell disease. Eur J Haematol. 2011;87(3):191-207. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2011.01647.x
Scott AW.Ophthalmic Manifestations of Sickle Cell Disease. South Med J. 2016;109(9):542-8. doi:10.14423/SMJ.0000000000000525
Brandow AM, Liem R.Sickle Cell Disease in the Emergency Department: Atypical Complications and Management.Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2011;12(3):202–212. doi:10.1016/j.cpem.2011.07.003
Shah KN, Racine J, Jones LC, Aaron RK.Pathophysiology and risk factors for osteonecrosis.Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2015;8(3):201–209. doi:10.1007/s12178-015-9277-8
Vallance H, Ford J.Carrier testing for autosomal-recessive disorders. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2003;40(4):473-97. doi:10.1080/10408360390247832
Sickle cell disease - Genetics Home Reference - NIH. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
Li X, Dao M, Lykotrafitis G, Karniadakis GE.Biomechanics and biorheology of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia.J Biomech. 2017;50:34–41. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.11.022
Ferrone FA.Polymerization and sickle cell disease: a molecular view. Microcirculation. 2004;11(2):115-28. doi:10.1080/10739680490278312
Tewari S, Brousse V, Piel FB, Menzel S, Rees DC.Environmental determinants of severity in sickle cell disease.Haematologica. 2015;100(9):1108–1116. doi:10.3324/haematol.2014.120030
Rose NC, Dolan SM.Newborn screening and the obstetrician.Obstet Gynecol. 2012;120(4):908–917. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31826b2f03
Saraf SL, Molokie RE, Nouraie M, et al.Differences in the clinical and genotypic presentation of sickle cell disease around the world.Paediatr Respir Rev. 2014;15(1):4–12. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2013.11.003
Bender MA.Sickle Cell Disease. GeneReviews® [Internet].
Ansong D, Akoto AO, Ocloo D, Ohene-Frempong K.Sickle cell disease: management options and challenges in developing countries.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2013;5(1):e2013062. Published 2013 Nov 4. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2013.062
Agrawal RK, Patel RK, Shah V, Nainiwal L, Trivedi B.Hydroxyurea in sickle cell disease: drug review.Indian J Hematol Blood Transfus. 2014;30(2):91–96. doi:10.1007/s12288-013-0261-4
Food and Drug Administration.FDA Approves First Gene Therapies to Treat Patients with Sickle Cell Disease.
Food and Drug Administration.Casgevy.
Food and Drug Administration.Lyfgenia.
Jain D, Atmapoojya P, Colah R, Lodha P.Sickle Cell Disease and Pregnancy.Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis. 2019;11(1):e2019040. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.4084/MJHID.2019.040
Pirenne F.The cause and pathogenesis of hemolytic transfusion reactions in sickle-cell disease.Curr Opin Hematol. 2019 Nov;26(6):488-494. doi:10.1097/MOH.0000000000000546Therrell BL Jr, Lloyd-Puryear MA, Eckman JR, Mann MY.Newborn screening for sickle cell diseases in the United States: A review of data spanning 2 decades.Semin Perinatol.2015 Apr;39(3):238-51. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2015.03.008
Pirenne F.The cause and pathogenesis of hemolytic transfusion reactions in sickle-cell disease.Curr Opin Hematol. 2019 Nov;26(6):488-494. doi:10.1097/MOH.0000000000000546
Therrell BL Jr, Lloyd-Puryear MA, Eckman JR, Mann MY.Newborn screening for sickle cell diseases in the United States: A review of data spanning 2 decades.Semin Perinatol.2015 Apr;39(3):238-51. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2015.03.008
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