Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsBenefitsFresh vs. CannedPotential DownsidesWho Should Avoid Eating Sardines?Can You Eat Sardines Every Day?Sardines vs. Salmon

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

Benefits

Fresh vs. Canned

Potential Downsides

Who Should Avoid Eating Sardines?

Can You Eat Sardines Every Day?

Sardines vs. Salmon

They also provide vitamins and are a great source ofcalciumand protein.However, they are also high in salt, calories, andpurines, which makes them unsuitable for people with gout, high blood pressure, and other health conditions.

1. Reduces Chances of Heart Disease

Sardines' high omega-3 content makes them aheart-healthy food.They have been found to reducecardiovascularmortality (death due to heart conditions) and improve cardiovascular outcomes.

Omega-3s also have been found to lowertriglyceride levels.Too many triglycerides in the blood can raise your risk forheart diseaseandstroke. Omega-3s may also raisehigh-density lipoprotein (HDL, good) cholesterolandlower blood pressure, which can reduce your risk for heart disease.

20 Types of Foods That Lower Blood Pressure

2. Improves Brain Health

Like other fish rich in omega-3s, sardines can promote brain health. When eaten as part of a healthy diet, fish can provide essential nutrients during pregnancy, breastfeeding, and early childhood to support a child’s brain development.

Research shows that consuming fish can increasegray matterin the brain.Higher gray matter levels may reduce the risk of neurological diseases.

One 2022 systemic review of omega-3 studies found that consuming omega-3 fatty acids could increase memory, learning, cognitive well-being, and brain blood flow.A significant upside is that omega-3s are well-tolerated and safe for most people, whether taken in supplement form or as part of a healthy diet.

How Do Sardines Compare to Fish Oil Supplements?

3. Supports Healthy Fetal Development

Sardines contain nutrients that are beneficial for fetal development, including omega-3 fatty acids, calcium, andvitamin D.

Studies have found that the omega-3s in sardines and other fish can provide vital support for fetal and infant neurodevelopment.A low intake of omega-3 fatty acids could lead to impaired fetal neurodevelopment.

Sardines are also a good source of calcium and vitamin D, crucial for fetalbone healthduring pregnancy.

4. Reduces Risk of Eye Diseases

Diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids from cold-water fish like sardines and salmon may help reduce your risk for eye diseases later in life.This includesage-related macular degenerationandglaucoma.

Omega-3 fatty acid intake can also reduce your risk fordry eye syndrome. Studies should show that omega-3s help relieve dry eye symptoms, including dryness, a gritty feeling, sensitivity to light, andblurry vision.

5. Strengthens Bones

Sardines are high in nutrients needed for a healthymusculoskeletal system. These nutrients include protein,magnesium, calcium, and vitamin D. Sardines are a significant source of vitamin D, a nutrient vital for calcium absorption and maintaining healthy bones.

What Foods Are High in Protein?

6. Reduces Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

Sardines provide two types of fatty acids—eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The body uses EPA and DHA toreduce inflammation, which could mean improved heart health, better brain function, and reduced risk forchronic inflammatory diseases.

Sardines contain high levels ofselenium, an essential mineral the body needs to create and convertglutathione.Glutathione is an antioxidant that helps your body fightoxidative stress.

What Is Oxidative Stress?Oxidative stress is the imbalance betweenfree radicals(reactive molecules that can damage cells and genetic material) andantioxidantsin the body.

What Is Oxidative Stress?

Oxidative stress is the imbalance betweenfree radicals(reactive molecules that can damage cells and genetic material) andantioxidantsin the body.

Selenium can prevent oxidative damage in the body, fight off radicals, and improve cell function.Selenium deficiencies have been linked to thyroid problems, decreased immune system function, hormonal imbalance, mood disorders, and heart disease.

7. Aids Muscle Growth and Repair

Because sardines are an excellent source of protein, they can aid in muscle growth and repair. One can of sardines contains about 23 grams of protein.

Proteins help provide the body withamino acidsneeded to build and maintain muscle mass.When you eat protein, it is digested and broken down into amino acids. These compounds are involved in various body processes, including muscle tissue growth and repair.

8. Improves Nerve Function

Sardines are a valuable source ofB12 (cobalamin). This water-soluble vitamin helps manage nerve function, brain health, energy levels, blood cells, and more.Avitamin B12 deficiencycan cause nerve damage, impaired mental function, oxygen depletion, and chronic fatigue.

One can of sardines contains 8.22 micrograms of vitamin B12.That is more than the National Institute for Health’s daily recommended amount.

9. May Help Prevent Type 2 Diabetes

Eating more sardines might reduce your risk fortype 2 diabetes, which is a problem with the way the body regulates and usesglucose(sugar) as fuel. Sardines are loaded with protein, magnesium, andzinc, nutrients that may help support healthy blood sugar levels.

One 2021 study followed 172 people withprediabeteswho were told to consume a diet that included 200 grams of sardines weekly or a control diet for 12 months.Both groups were given nutritional education for managing their blood sugar.

At the end of the 12 months, the people in the sardine group were found to be significantly less likely to develop diabetes.Around 30% of this group was no longer considered “very high” risk compared to only 4.9% of the control group. The sardine group also had higher heart health improvements, including improved triglyceride, blood pressure, and HDL cholesterol levels.

Foods With Cholesterol: 12 Healthy and Unhealthy Choices

Fresh vs. Canned Sardines

Fresh sardines are better quality than canned sardines because they are often caught and sold locally. They tend to have a better, milder, and sweeter taste. Fresh sardines are healthier than canned sardines because they are lower in sodium and contain nutrients that may be lost in processing.

However, fresh sardines are harder to find than canned sardines, especially if you do not live near a coastal area. They also have a short life and must be cooked or frozen soon after being caught. Fresh sardines require more preparation time than canned sardines because they need to be cleaned and cooked.

Canned sardines have the heads removed, and what you eat includes the skin and bone. These components are sources of calcium andvitamin D.

Canned sardines are packed in various liquids—oils, water, tomato sauce, and mustard. Sardines packed in oil tend to be higher in fat and calories than those packed in water.

Canned sardines are a more convenient option because they are easy to use and store. They are an alternative for people who don’t have the time to prepare fresh fish. They also have a long shelf life and can last in the pantry for many years.

While canned sardines are highly nutritious, they do contain high sodium. They are also processed and may contain lower-quality sardine varieties.

Some canned sardine varieties may containbisphenol A (BPA), a chemical believed to be linked to cancer and fertility problems.Although levels tend to be low, it is always a good idea to read the product’s labeling and balance your diet between fresh and canned foods.

Sardines are generally considered generally safe for most people to consume. The main concerns about sardines are mercury poisoning, heavy metal contamination, environmental impacts, and BPA.

Mercury poisoning: Mercury is a damaging pollutant found in fish, including sardines. High amounts of mercury can lead to nerve damage in adults and affect childhood development. However, research has found that the low levels of mercury in sardines pose little risk to human health.

Pregnant people were previously advised to avoid fish due to mercury and heavy metal containment. However, the guidance on this has since changed, and eating any fully cooked fish, including sardines, is safe during pregnancy.Sardines are steamed, fried, or smoked before they are canned, which means they are fully cooked.

Even so, sardines from various parts of the world can contain higher levels of toxic metals. It is always a good idea to check where your sardines are coming from to ensure they are not harmful to your health.

BPA concerns: BPA is a chemical used to manufacture vinyl, aluminum, and tin can liners. This includes some cans used to pack sardines and other canned fish. If you have concerns about BPA, it is best to try to find can-free seafood brands.

Environmental impact/sustainability: Sustainability creates conditions in which people and nature coexist in harmony to support present and future generations.To practice sustainability, look for wild sardines caught in the Pacific. It is best to avoid sardines that are becoming depleted, such as those that are Mediterranean-caught.

Sardines may not be suitable for everyone, including people with certain health conditions and those taking certain medications.

High sodiumintake: One can of sardines has around 282 milligrams of sodium.That is a little over 12% of the daily recommended intake.If you have high blood pressure, you should limit your sodium intake. Having high blood pressure does not mean you cannot eat canned sardines. It just means you should decrease your serving sizes or opt for fresh sardines over canned ones.

High-purine food:Sardines are high-purine foods, which means they cause uric acid buildup and increase the risk of diabetes, kidney stones, and gout flares.A low-purine diet is best for someone with any of these conditions.

Anticoagulant medications:Omega-3s may have an anticoagulant effect, which means they can decrease blood clotting. If you take anticoagulant medications, like warfarin and Eliquis (apixaban), check with your healthcare provider whether eating oily fish like sardines is safe.

Allergies: Some people are allergic to seafood, including sardines. A fish or seafood allergy can cause skin reactions, digestive troubles, swelling, redness, oranaphylaxis.

AnaphylaxisAnaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening.Symptoms include swelling, hives, and breathing troubles. Immediate treatment for anaphylaxis is often necessary and typically requires anepinephrine injection.

Anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction that can be life-threatening.Symptoms include swelling, hives, and breathing troubles. Immediate treatment for anaphylaxis is often necessary and typically requires anepinephrine injection.

While sardines are healthy, eating canned sardines every day is probably not a good idea. This is because they contain low levels of mercury and high amounts of sodium.

You can eat canned sardines in moderation, such as two or three times a week, as part of a healthy, balanced diet. However, eating fresh sardines and other fresh fish more than three times a week without any adverse effects is possible.

Sardines vs. Salmon: Which Is Better?

While canned sardines are still rich in nutrients, they are not as healthy as other fish that are available fresh. Fresh sardines are much healthier than canned, but still not as healthy as other fatty fish.

Fresh salmon is healthier than sardines because it contains higher amounts of omega-3 fatty acids. It also has less cholesterol, calories, fat, and sodium.

The 5 Healthiest Fish to Eat and Which to Limit, According to a Dietitian

Summary

Sardines are small, nutrient-dense fish that are available fresh and canned. These oily fish contain omega-3 fatty acids and are good sources of protein, vitamins, selenium, and calcium.

Sardines are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which have anti-inflammatory properties. Additional health benefits include supporting heart and bone health, promoting fetal development, improving nerve function, and preventing type 2 diabetes.

Most people can safely eat sardines as part of a regular, healthy diet. Because canned sardines are high in sodium and are a high-purine food, they should only be eaten in moderation for people with high blood pressure, diabetes, gout, and kidney disease. People who take anticoagulant medications may need to control their intake of omega-3 fatty acids. You should also avoid sardines if you are allergic to seafood.

While sardines are a highly nutritious food, eating them every day is probably not a good idea. Fresh sardines and other fresh fish can be eaten more frequently.

30 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Isaacs M.The humble sardine (small pelagics): fish as food or fodder.Agric & Food Secur. 2016;5(1). doi:10.1186/s40066-016-0073-5Khan SU, Lone AN, Khan MS, et al.Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.EClinicalMedicine. 2021;38:100997. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100997Harvard Health Publishing.Omega-3 foods: incorporating healthy fats into your diet.Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.Bos DJ, van Montfort SJ, Oranje B, Durston S, Smeets PA.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human brain morphology and function: what is the evidence?Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(3):546-561. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.12.031Dighriri IM, Alsubaie AM, Hakami FM, et al.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain functions: a systematic review.Cureus. 2022;14(10):e30091. doi:10.7759/cureus.30091Wenstrom KD.The FDA’s new advice on fish: it’s complicated.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014;211(5):475-478.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2014.07.048Merle BMJ, Benlian P, Puche N, Bassols A, Delcourt C, Souied EH.Circulating omega-3 fatty acids and neovascular age-related macular degeneration.Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.2014;55(3):2010. doi:10.1167/iovs.14-13916Wang WX, Ko ML.Efficacy of omega-3 intake in managing dry eye disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Clin Med. 2023;12(22):7026. doi:10.3390/jcm12227026O’Toole, P.Evaluating the vitamin D content in sardines and mackerel. Boston University.Fang ZB, Wang GX, Cai GZ, et al.Association between fatty acids intake and bone mineral density in adults aged 20–59: NHANES 2011–2018.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1033195. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1033195Santos HO, May TL, Bueno AA.Eating more sardines instead of fish oil supplementation: beyond omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, a matrix of nutrients with cardiovascular benefits.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1107475. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1107475USDA FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.Office of Dietary Supplements.Selenium - consumer.Hinkle ER, Wiedner HJ, Black AJ, Giudice J.RNA processing in skeletal muscle biology and disease.Transcription.2019;10(1):1-20. doi:10.1080/21541264.2018.1558677Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12 - consumer.Díaz-Rizzolo DA, Serra A, Colungo C, Sala-Vila A, Sisó-Almirall A, Gomis R.Type 2 diabetes preventive effects with a 12-months sardine-enriched diet in elderly population with prediabetes: an interventional, randomized and controlled trial.Clin Nutr. 2021;40(5):2587-2598. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.03.014USDA FoodData Central.Branded foods: sardines.Truite CVR, Noronha JNG, Prado GC, et al.Bioperformance studies of biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds extracted from fish bones impregnated with free curcumin and complexed with β-cyclodextrin in bone regeneration.Biomolecules. 2022;12(3):383. doi:10.3390/biom12030383Cunha SC, Alves RN, Fernandes JO, Casal S, Marques A.First approach to assess the bioaccessibility of bisphenol A in canned seafood.Food Chem. 2017;232:501-507. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.006Porto ISA, Dantas SVA, Felix CSA, Cunha FAS, de Andrade JB, Ferreira SLC. Human health risk assessment of mercury in highly consumed fish in Salvador, Brazil.Mar Pollut Bull. 2024;198:115842. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115842Taylor CM, Emmett PM, Emond AM, Golding J.A review of guidance on fish consumption in pregnancy: is it fit for purpose?Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(11):2149-2159. doi:10.1017/S1368980018000599Environmental Protection Agency.Learn about sustainability.Radio France Internationale.Shrinking Mediterranean sardines the ‘latest victims of global warming.‘American Heart Association.How much sodium should I eat per day?Kaneko K, Aoyagi Y, Fukuuchi T, Inazawa K, Yamaoka N.Total purine and purine base content of common foodstuffs for facilitating nutritional therapy for gout and hyperuricemia.Biol Pharm Bull. 2014;37(5):709-21. doi:10.1248/bpb.b13-00967.American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology.Fish.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Anaphylaxis.Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Fish: friend or foe?Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Omega-3 fatty acids: an essential contribution.

30 Sources

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Isaacs M.The humble sardine (small pelagics): fish as food or fodder.Agric & Food Secur. 2016;5(1). doi:10.1186/s40066-016-0073-5Khan SU, Lone AN, Khan MS, et al.Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.EClinicalMedicine. 2021;38:100997. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100997Harvard Health Publishing.Omega-3 foods: incorporating healthy fats into your diet.Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.Bos DJ, van Montfort SJ, Oranje B, Durston S, Smeets PA.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human brain morphology and function: what is the evidence?Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(3):546-561. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.12.031Dighriri IM, Alsubaie AM, Hakami FM, et al.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain functions: a systematic review.Cureus. 2022;14(10):e30091. doi:10.7759/cureus.30091Wenstrom KD.The FDA’s new advice on fish: it’s complicated.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014;211(5):475-478.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2014.07.048Merle BMJ, Benlian P, Puche N, Bassols A, Delcourt C, Souied EH.Circulating omega-3 fatty acids and neovascular age-related macular degeneration.Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.2014;55(3):2010. doi:10.1167/iovs.14-13916Wang WX, Ko ML.Efficacy of omega-3 intake in managing dry eye disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Clin Med. 2023;12(22):7026. doi:10.3390/jcm12227026O’Toole, P.Evaluating the vitamin D content in sardines and mackerel. Boston University.Fang ZB, Wang GX, Cai GZ, et al.Association between fatty acids intake and bone mineral density in adults aged 20–59: NHANES 2011–2018.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1033195. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1033195Santos HO, May TL, Bueno AA.Eating more sardines instead of fish oil supplementation: beyond omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, a matrix of nutrients with cardiovascular benefits.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1107475. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1107475USDA FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.Office of Dietary Supplements.Selenium - consumer.Hinkle ER, Wiedner HJ, Black AJ, Giudice J.RNA processing in skeletal muscle biology and disease.Transcription.2019;10(1):1-20. doi:10.1080/21541264.2018.1558677Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12 - consumer.Díaz-Rizzolo DA, Serra A, Colungo C, Sala-Vila A, Sisó-Almirall A, Gomis R.Type 2 diabetes preventive effects with a 12-months sardine-enriched diet in elderly population with prediabetes: an interventional, randomized and controlled trial.Clin Nutr. 2021;40(5):2587-2598. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.03.014USDA FoodData Central.Branded foods: sardines.Truite CVR, Noronha JNG, Prado GC, et al.Bioperformance studies of biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds extracted from fish bones impregnated with free curcumin and complexed with β-cyclodextrin in bone regeneration.Biomolecules. 2022;12(3):383. doi:10.3390/biom12030383Cunha SC, Alves RN, Fernandes JO, Casal S, Marques A.First approach to assess the bioaccessibility of bisphenol A in canned seafood.Food Chem. 2017;232:501-507. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.006Porto ISA, Dantas SVA, Felix CSA, Cunha FAS, de Andrade JB, Ferreira SLC. Human health risk assessment of mercury in highly consumed fish in Salvador, Brazil.Mar Pollut Bull. 2024;198:115842. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115842Taylor CM, Emmett PM, Emond AM, Golding J.A review of guidance on fish consumption in pregnancy: is it fit for purpose?Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(11):2149-2159. doi:10.1017/S1368980018000599Environmental Protection Agency.Learn about sustainability.Radio France Internationale.Shrinking Mediterranean sardines the ‘latest victims of global warming.‘American Heart Association.How much sodium should I eat per day?Kaneko K, Aoyagi Y, Fukuuchi T, Inazawa K, Yamaoka N.Total purine and purine base content of common foodstuffs for facilitating nutritional therapy for gout and hyperuricemia.Biol Pharm Bull. 2014;37(5):709-21. doi:10.1248/bpb.b13-00967.American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology.Fish.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Anaphylaxis.Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Fish: friend or foe?Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Omega-3 fatty acids: an essential contribution.

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Isaacs M.The humble sardine (small pelagics): fish as food or fodder.Agric & Food Secur. 2016;5(1). doi:10.1186/s40066-016-0073-5Khan SU, Lone AN, Khan MS, et al.Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.EClinicalMedicine. 2021;38:100997. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100997Harvard Health Publishing.Omega-3 foods: incorporating healthy fats into your diet.Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.Bos DJ, van Montfort SJ, Oranje B, Durston S, Smeets PA.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human brain morphology and function: what is the evidence?Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(3):546-561. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.12.031Dighriri IM, Alsubaie AM, Hakami FM, et al.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain functions: a systematic review.Cureus. 2022;14(10):e30091. doi:10.7759/cureus.30091Wenstrom KD.The FDA’s new advice on fish: it’s complicated.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014;211(5):475-478.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2014.07.048Merle BMJ, Benlian P, Puche N, Bassols A, Delcourt C, Souied EH.Circulating omega-3 fatty acids and neovascular age-related macular degeneration.Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.2014;55(3):2010. doi:10.1167/iovs.14-13916Wang WX, Ko ML.Efficacy of omega-3 intake in managing dry eye disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Clin Med. 2023;12(22):7026. doi:10.3390/jcm12227026O’Toole, P.Evaluating the vitamin D content in sardines and mackerel. Boston University.Fang ZB, Wang GX, Cai GZ, et al.Association between fatty acids intake and bone mineral density in adults aged 20–59: NHANES 2011–2018.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1033195. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1033195Santos HO, May TL, Bueno AA.Eating more sardines instead of fish oil supplementation: beyond omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, a matrix of nutrients with cardiovascular benefits.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1107475. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1107475USDA FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.Office of Dietary Supplements.Selenium - consumer.Hinkle ER, Wiedner HJ, Black AJ, Giudice J.RNA processing in skeletal muscle biology and disease.Transcription.2019;10(1):1-20. doi:10.1080/21541264.2018.1558677Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12 - consumer.Díaz-Rizzolo DA, Serra A, Colungo C, Sala-Vila A, Sisó-Almirall A, Gomis R.Type 2 diabetes preventive effects with a 12-months sardine-enriched diet in elderly population with prediabetes: an interventional, randomized and controlled trial.Clin Nutr. 2021;40(5):2587-2598. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.03.014USDA FoodData Central.Branded foods: sardines.Truite CVR, Noronha JNG, Prado GC, et al.Bioperformance studies of biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds extracted from fish bones impregnated with free curcumin and complexed with β-cyclodextrin in bone regeneration.Biomolecules. 2022;12(3):383. doi:10.3390/biom12030383Cunha SC, Alves RN, Fernandes JO, Casal S, Marques A.First approach to assess the bioaccessibility of bisphenol A in canned seafood.Food Chem. 2017;232:501-507. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.006Porto ISA, Dantas SVA, Felix CSA, Cunha FAS, de Andrade JB, Ferreira SLC. Human health risk assessment of mercury in highly consumed fish in Salvador, Brazil.Mar Pollut Bull. 2024;198:115842. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115842Taylor CM, Emmett PM, Emond AM, Golding J.A review of guidance on fish consumption in pregnancy: is it fit for purpose?Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(11):2149-2159. doi:10.1017/S1368980018000599Environmental Protection Agency.Learn about sustainability.Radio France Internationale.Shrinking Mediterranean sardines the ‘latest victims of global warming.‘American Heart Association.How much sodium should I eat per day?Kaneko K, Aoyagi Y, Fukuuchi T, Inazawa K, Yamaoka N.Total purine and purine base content of common foodstuffs for facilitating nutritional therapy for gout and hyperuricemia.Biol Pharm Bull. 2014;37(5):709-21. doi:10.1248/bpb.b13-00967.American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology.Fish.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Anaphylaxis.Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Fish: friend or foe?Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Omega-3 fatty acids: an essential contribution.

Isaacs M.The humble sardine (small pelagics): fish as food or fodder.Agric & Food Secur. 2016;5(1). doi:10.1186/s40066-016-0073-5

Khan SU, Lone AN, Khan MS, et al.Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.EClinicalMedicine. 2021;38:100997. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100997

Harvard Health Publishing.Omega-3 foods: incorporating healthy fats into your diet.

Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.

Bos DJ, van Montfort SJ, Oranje B, Durston S, Smeets PA.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human brain morphology and function: what is the evidence?Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(3):546-561. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.12.031

Dighriri IM, Alsubaie AM, Hakami FM, et al.Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain functions: a systematic review.Cureus. 2022;14(10):e30091. doi:10.7759/cureus.30091

Wenstrom KD.The FDA’s new advice on fish: it’s complicated.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014;211(5):475-478.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2014.07.048

Merle BMJ, Benlian P, Puche N, Bassols A, Delcourt C, Souied EH.Circulating omega-3 fatty acids and neovascular age-related macular degeneration.Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci.2014;55(3):2010. doi:10.1167/iovs.14-13916

Wang WX, Ko ML.Efficacy of omega-3 intake in managing dry eye disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Clin Med. 2023;12(22):7026. doi:10.3390/jcm12227026

O’Toole, P.Evaluating the vitamin D content in sardines and mackerel. Boston University.

Fang ZB, Wang GX, Cai GZ, et al.Association between fatty acids intake and bone mineral density in adults aged 20–59: NHANES 2011–2018.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1033195. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1033195

Santos HO, May TL, Bueno AA.Eating more sardines instead of fish oil supplementation: beyond omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, a matrix of nutrients with cardiovascular benefits.Front Nutr. 2023;10:1107475. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1107475

USDA FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.

Office of Dietary Supplements.Selenium - consumer.

Hinkle ER, Wiedner HJ, Black AJ, Giudice J.RNA processing in skeletal muscle biology and disease.Transcription.2019;10(1):1-20. doi:10.1080/21541264.2018.1558677

Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12 - consumer.

Díaz-Rizzolo DA, Serra A, Colungo C, Sala-Vila A, Sisó-Almirall A, Gomis R.Type 2 diabetes preventive effects with a 12-months sardine-enriched diet in elderly population with prediabetes: an interventional, randomized and controlled trial.Clin Nutr. 2021;40(5):2587-2598. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.03.014

USDA FoodData Central.Branded foods: sardines.

Truite CVR, Noronha JNG, Prado GC, et al.Bioperformance studies of biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds extracted from fish bones impregnated with free curcumin and complexed with β-cyclodextrin in bone regeneration.Biomolecules. 2022;12(3):383. doi:10.3390/biom12030383

Cunha SC, Alves RN, Fernandes JO, Casal S, Marques A.First approach to assess the bioaccessibility of bisphenol A in canned seafood.Food Chem. 2017;232:501-507. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.006

Porto ISA, Dantas SVA, Felix CSA, Cunha FAS, de Andrade JB, Ferreira SLC. Human health risk assessment of mercury in highly consumed fish in Salvador, Brazil.Mar Pollut Bull. 2024;198:115842. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115842

Taylor CM, Emmett PM, Emond AM, Golding J.A review of guidance on fish consumption in pregnancy: is it fit for purpose?Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(11):2149-2159. doi:10.1017/S1368980018000599

Environmental Protection Agency.Learn about sustainability.

Radio France Internationale.Shrinking Mediterranean sardines the ‘latest victims of global warming.’

American Heart Association.How much sodium should I eat per day?

Kaneko K, Aoyagi Y, Fukuuchi T, Inazawa K, Yamaoka N.Total purine and purine base content of common foodstuffs for facilitating nutritional therapy for gout and hyperuricemia.Biol Pharm Bull. 2014;37(5):709-21. doi:10.1248/bpb.b13-00967.

American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology.Fish.

Johns Hopkins Medicine.Anaphylaxis.

Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Fish: friend or foe?

Harvard T.H. Chen School of Public Health.Omega-3 fatty acids: an essential contribution.

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