Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsEstablished RisksPossible RisksReducing Risk
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Established Risks
Possible Risks
Reducing Risk
Several risk factors present during pregnancy have been associated with autism. Some, like older parental age and use of antidepressants, have strong research support. Others, such as Tylenol (acetaminophen) use and exposure to environmental toxins, need more investigation.
When exploring these, it’s important to remember that an association is not the same thing as a cause. For example, it’s a fact that preterm babies are more likely to have autism than full-term babies, but that doesn’t mean that prematurity causes autism. Furthermore, the connection may have more to do with genetics or socioeconomic factors than birth parent behaviors.
Proven Pregnancy-Related Risk Factors for Autism
Multiple well-researched, large studies have found a link between certain pregnancy-related factors and autism, and the results have been reproduced in later studies.
These factors, therefore, are valid, though they raise the risk of autism only slightly. If it’s possible for you to minimize these risks, your likelihood of having an autistic child will be reduced.
Use of Antiepileptic Drugs
If you are considering pregnancy, talk with your neurologist about changing or even stopping your medication to reduce the risk of autism.
Use of Antidepressants
The use of antidepressants, particularlyselective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are also linked to autism risk.
The findings of a 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis support an increased risk of autism in children of mothers exposed to SSRIs during pregnancy.
Older Parental Age
Quite a few large studies suggest that older parents are significantly more likely to have autistic children.
There is some evidence to suggest that this phenomenon is more likely when the male genetic parent is older, though there is some evidence that the age of the childbearing parent is a factor, as well.
Parent Age and Autism Risk
Preterm Birth
A number of studies have found an association between preterm birth and autism, as well as other developmental disorders. About 7% of children born preterm have autism, compared with 1% to 2% of children in the general population.
Low birth weight is a related risk. While there is no way to completely eliminate the risk of early delivery, it is possible to lower that risk.
Speak with your healthcare provider if you are at increased risk of delivering early.
Gestational Diabetes
A large 2021 review showed that if the birth parent experiencesgestational diabetes(diabetes first diagnosed when pregnant), there is a greater-than-average likelihood of having an autistic child.This type of diabetes is also associated with preterm birth, preeclampsia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Any form of diabetes mellitus in the birth parent can be a risk factor.
Gestational diabetes can’t always be avoided, but it can be carefully managed with the support of a healthcare provider. Maintaining healthy blood sugar levels during your pregnancy may minimize the impact the condition could have on fetal development.
Unraveling the Complex Causes of Autism, According to Experts
Possible Pregnancy-Related Risk Factors for Autism
If you have concerns, you’re better off avoiding these possible risks, though it’s not absolutely certain that they will increase your risk of having a child diagnosed with anautism spectrum disorder(ASD) condition.
Taking Tylenol (Acetaminophen) During Pregnancy
Use of Tylenol during pregnancy is very common as it is one of the only pain relievers considered safe during pregnancy. However, there is a growing concern that it may be linked to increased risks to a fetus, including for neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Birth cohort studies in Spainand Denmarkfound an association between Tylenol use during pregnancy and autism in children. One smaller study of the umbilical cord blood of children who were later diagnosed with autism or ADHD found that those with more acetaminophen in their pre-birth blood supply were more likely to develop the disorders.
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) does not recommend any changes in how physicians prescribe acetaminophen until more definitive research is done.
Iron Deficiency
Iron is important for fetal brain development. However, iron deficiency is common during pregnancy; nearly half of pregnant persons are not getting enough iron.
A 2014 study published inAmerican Journal of Epidemiologyfound an association between maternal iron deficiency and an increased risk of autism. This risk was found to be much greater with higher maternal age and the presence of metabolic conditions during pregnancy.
Cautions for Using Acetaminophen in Pregnancy
Environmental Toxins
Exposure to certain toxins found in some plastic goods, newly built houses, new carpets, and even some food packaging may increase the risk of autism. While earlier studies found a connection, more recent studies were inconclusive.
Such toxins include:
Other environmental exposures that have been linked to autism include:
Health Issues
According to several meta-analyses (analyses of multiple studies on the topic), the following pregnancy-related issues are associated with autism in more than one study:
A single, older meta-analysis uncovered a much longer list of possible pregnancy issues associated with increased risk of autism, including:
While this list is long, it’s important to remember that many of these issues may appear in a single pregnancy and birth, and are usually associated with premature birth. For example, prenatal stress, congenital malformation, and other issues may lead to an early birth, which is associated with low birth weight.
While the early traits of autism typically appear in the first one to two years of life, emerging research suggests there may be traits of autism during pregnancy. A 2022 study, which examined brainMRIscans of fetuses who were later diagnosed with autism, found certain regions (insula and amygdala) were enlarged. The researchers suggested that such findings during pregnancy may be able to predict the emergence of autism later in life.
Reducing Risk of Autism During Pregnancy and Birth
Based on the research, there are several steps a birth parent can take to reduce the risk that their child will have autism.They include:
According to studies, a fetus may also benefit from consistent and appropriate use of specific supplements.
Summary
Determining pregnancy-related risk factors for autism is an ongoing area of research. Some risk factors have more evidence of an association than others.
Taking certain antiepileptic drugs, being older parents, having a preterm birth, and developing gestational diabetes are believed to be risk factors. Possible risk factors include environmental toxins and taking Tylenol during pregnancy.
A Word From Verywell
—DAVID SNYDER, PHARMD, MEDICAL EXPERT BOARD
21 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Wiggs KK, Rickert ME, Sujan AC, Quinn PD, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Oberg AS, D’Onofrio BM.Antiseizure medication use during pregnancy and risk of ASD and ADHD in children.Neurology. 2020 Dec 15;95(24):e3232-e3240. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000010993Man KKC, Tong HHY, Wong LYL, Chan EW, Simonoff E, Wong ICK.Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2015;49:82-89. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.020Sandin S, Schendel D, Magnusson P, Hultman C, et. al.Autism risk associated with parental age and with increasing difference in age between the parents.Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(5):693-700. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.70Agrawal S, Rao SC, Bulsara MK, Patole SK.Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in preterm infants: A meta-analysis.Pediatrics.2018;142(3):e20180134. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-0134Rowland J, Wilson CA.The association between gestational diabetes and ASD and ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):5136. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84573-3Xu G, Jing J, Bowers K, Liu B, Bao W.Maternal diabetes and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(4):766-75. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1928-2Bauer AZ, Swan SH, Kriebel D, Liew Z, Taylor HS, Bornehag CG, Andrade AM, Olsen J, Jensen RH, Mitchell RT, Skakkebaek NE, Jégou B, Kristensen DM.Paracetamol use during pregnancy - a call for precautionary action.Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2021;17(12):757-766. doi:10.1038/s41574-021-00553-7Avella-Garcia CB, Julvez J, Fortuny J, Rebordosa C, García-Esteban R, Galán IR, Tardón A, Rodríguez-Bernal CL, Iñiguez C, Andiarena A, Santa-Marina L, Sunyer J.Acetaminophen use in pregnancy and neurodevelopment: attention function and autism spectrum symptoms.Int J Epidemiol. 2016 Dec 1;45(6):1987-1996. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw115Liew Z, Ritz B, Virk J, Olsen J.Maternal use of acetaminophen during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders in childhood: A Danish national birth cohort study.Autism Res. 2016 Sep;9(9):951-8. doi:10.1002/aur.1591Ji Y, et al.Association of cord plasma biomarkers of in utero acetaminophen exposure with risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in childhood.JAMA Psychiatry.2020 Feb 1;77(2):180-189. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3259American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.ACOG response to consensus statement on paracetamol use during pregnancy. September 29, 2021.Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Krakowiak P, Hansen RL, Ozonoff S.Maternal intake of supplemental iron and risk of autism spectrum disorder.American Journal of Epidemiology. 2014;180(9):890-900. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu208Marí-Bauset S, Donat-Vargas C, Llópis-González A, et al.Endocrine disruptors and autism spectrum disorder in pregnancy: A review and evaluation of the quality of the epidemiological evidence.Children (Basel). 2018;5(12):157. doi:10.3390/children5120157Chen SW, Zhong XS, Jiang LN, Zheng XY, Xiong YQ, Ma SJ, Qiu M, Huo ST, Ge J, Chen Q.Maternal autoimmune diseases and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Behav Brain Res. 2016;296:61-69. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.08.035Jiang HY, Xu LL, Shao L, et al.Maternal infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Brain Behav Immun. 2016 Nov;58:165-172. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.06.005Varcin KJ, Alvares GA, Uljarević M, Whitehouse AJO.Prenatal maternal stress events and phenotypic outcomes in autism spectrum disorder.Autism Res. 2017;10(11):1866-1877. doi:10.1002/aur.1830Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL.Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis.Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(1):7-14. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672Ortug A, Guo Y, Feldman HA, et al.Human fetal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tells future emergence of autism spectrum disorders.The FASEB Journal. 2022;36(S1):fasebj.2022.36.S1.R2353. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2022.36.s1.r2353Levine SZ, Kodesh A, Viktorin A, Smith L, Uher R, Reichenberg A, Sandin S.Association of maternal use of folic acid and multivitamin supplements in the periods before and during pregnancy with the risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring.JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(2):176-184. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4050Bölte S, Girdler S, Marschik PB.The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder.Cell Mol Life Sci. 2019;76(7):1275-1297. doi:10.1007/s00018-018-2988-4Schmidt RJ, Iosif AM, Guerrero Angel E, Ozonoff S.Association of maternal prenatal vitamin use with risk for autism spectrum disorder recurrence in young siblings.JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 Apr 1;76(4):391-398. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.3901
21 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Wiggs KK, Rickert ME, Sujan AC, Quinn PD, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Oberg AS, D’Onofrio BM.Antiseizure medication use during pregnancy and risk of ASD and ADHD in children.Neurology. 2020 Dec 15;95(24):e3232-e3240. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000010993Man KKC, Tong HHY, Wong LYL, Chan EW, Simonoff E, Wong ICK.Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2015;49:82-89. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.020Sandin S, Schendel D, Magnusson P, Hultman C, et. al.Autism risk associated with parental age and with increasing difference in age between the parents.Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(5):693-700. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.70Agrawal S, Rao SC, Bulsara MK, Patole SK.Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in preterm infants: A meta-analysis.Pediatrics.2018;142(3):e20180134. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-0134Rowland J, Wilson CA.The association between gestational diabetes and ASD and ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):5136. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84573-3Xu G, Jing J, Bowers K, Liu B, Bao W.Maternal diabetes and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(4):766-75. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1928-2Bauer AZ, Swan SH, Kriebel D, Liew Z, Taylor HS, Bornehag CG, Andrade AM, Olsen J, Jensen RH, Mitchell RT, Skakkebaek NE, Jégou B, Kristensen DM.Paracetamol use during pregnancy - a call for precautionary action.Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2021;17(12):757-766. doi:10.1038/s41574-021-00553-7Avella-Garcia CB, Julvez J, Fortuny J, Rebordosa C, García-Esteban R, Galán IR, Tardón A, Rodríguez-Bernal CL, Iñiguez C, Andiarena A, Santa-Marina L, Sunyer J.Acetaminophen use in pregnancy and neurodevelopment: attention function and autism spectrum symptoms.Int J Epidemiol. 2016 Dec 1;45(6):1987-1996. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw115Liew Z, Ritz B, Virk J, Olsen J.Maternal use of acetaminophen during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders in childhood: A Danish national birth cohort study.Autism Res. 2016 Sep;9(9):951-8. doi:10.1002/aur.1591Ji Y, et al.Association of cord plasma biomarkers of in utero acetaminophen exposure with risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in childhood.JAMA Psychiatry.2020 Feb 1;77(2):180-189. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3259American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.ACOG response to consensus statement on paracetamol use during pregnancy. September 29, 2021.Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Krakowiak P, Hansen RL, Ozonoff S.Maternal intake of supplemental iron and risk of autism spectrum disorder.American Journal of Epidemiology. 2014;180(9):890-900. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu208Marí-Bauset S, Donat-Vargas C, Llópis-González A, et al.Endocrine disruptors and autism spectrum disorder in pregnancy: A review and evaluation of the quality of the epidemiological evidence.Children (Basel). 2018;5(12):157. doi:10.3390/children5120157Chen SW, Zhong XS, Jiang LN, Zheng XY, Xiong YQ, Ma SJ, Qiu M, Huo ST, Ge J, Chen Q.Maternal autoimmune diseases and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Behav Brain Res. 2016;296:61-69. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.08.035Jiang HY, Xu LL, Shao L, et al.Maternal infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Brain Behav Immun. 2016 Nov;58:165-172. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.06.005Varcin KJ, Alvares GA, Uljarević M, Whitehouse AJO.Prenatal maternal stress events and phenotypic outcomes in autism spectrum disorder.Autism Res. 2017;10(11):1866-1877. doi:10.1002/aur.1830Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL.Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis.Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(1):7-14. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672Ortug A, Guo Y, Feldman HA, et al.Human fetal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tells future emergence of autism spectrum disorders.The FASEB Journal. 2022;36(S1):fasebj.2022.36.S1.R2353. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2022.36.s1.r2353Levine SZ, Kodesh A, Viktorin A, Smith L, Uher R, Reichenberg A, Sandin S.Association of maternal use of folic acid and multivitamin supplements in the periods before and during pregnancy with the risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring.JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(2):176-184. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4050Bölte S, Girdler S, Marschik PB.The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder.Cell Mol Life Sci. 2019;76(7):1275-1297. doi:10.1007/s00018-018-2988-4Schmidt RJ, Iosif AM, Guerrero Angel E, Ozonoff S.Association of maternal prenatal vitamin use with risk for autism spectrum disorder recurrence in young siblings.JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 Apr 1;76(4):391-398. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.3901
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Wiggs KK, Rickert ME, Sujan AC, Quinn PD, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Oberg AS, D’Onofrio BM.Antiseizure medication use during pregnancy and risk of ASD and ADHD in children.Neurology. 2020 Dec 15;95(24):e3232-e3240. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000010993Man KKC, Tong HHY, Wong LYL, Chan EW, Simonoff E, Wong ICK.Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2015;49:82-89. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.020Sandin S, Schendel D, Magnusson P, Hultman C, et. al.Autism risk associated with parental age and with increasing difference in age between the parents.Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(5):693-700. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.70Agrawal S, Rao SC, Bulsara MK, Patole SK.Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in preterm infants: A meta-analysis.Pediatrics.2018;142(3):e20180134. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-0134Rowland J, Wilson CA.The association between gestational diabetes and ASD and ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):5136. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84573-3Xu G, Jing J, Bowers K, Liu B, Bao W.Maternal diabetes and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(4):766-75. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1928-2Bauer AZ, Swan SH, Kriebel D, Liew Z, Taylor HS, Bornehag CG, Andrade AM, Olsen J, Jensen RH, Mitchell RT, Skakkebaek NE, Jégou B, Kristensen DM.Paracetamol use during pregnancy - a call for precautionary action.Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2021;17(12):757-766. doi:10.1038/s41574-021-00553-7Avella-Garcia CB, Julvez J, Fortuny J, Rebordosa C, García-Esteban R, Galán IR, Tardón A, Rodríguez-Bernal CL, Iñiguez C, Andiarena A, Santa-Marina L, Sunyer J.Acetaminophen use in pregnancy and neurodevelopment: attention function and autism spectrum symptoms.Int J Epidemiol. 2016 Dec 1;45(6):1987-1996. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw115Liew Z, Ritz B, Virk J, Olsen J.Maternal use of acetaminophen during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders in childhood: A Danish national birth cohort study.Autism Res. 2016 Sep;9(9):951-8. doi:10.1002/aur.1591Ji Y, et al.Association of cord plasma biomarkers of in utero acetaminophen exposure with risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in childhood.JAMA Psychiatry.2020 Feb 1;77(2):180-189. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3259American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.ACOG response to consensus statement on paracetamol use during pregnancy. September 29, 2021.Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Krakowiak P, Hansen RL, Ozonoff S.Maternal intake of supplemental iron and risk of autism spectrum disorder.American Journal of Epidemiology. 2014;180(9):890-900. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu208Marí-Bauset S, Donat-Vargas C, Llópis-González A, et al.Endocrine disruptors and autism spectrum disorder in pregnancy: A review and evaluation of the quality of the epidemiological evidence.Children (Basel). 2018;5(12):157. doi:10.3390/children5120157Chen SW, Zhong XS, Jiang LN, Zheng XY, Xiong YQ, Ma SJ, Qiu M, Huo ST, Ge J, Chen Q.Maternal autoimmune diseases and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Behav Brain Res. 2016;296:61-69. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.08.035Jiang HY, Xu LL, Shao L, et al.Maternal infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Brain Behav Immun. 2016 Nov;58:165-172. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.06.005Varcin KJ, Alvares GA, Uljarević M, Whitehouse AJO.Prenatal maternal stress events and phenotypic outcomes in autism spectrum disorder.Autism Res. 2017;10(11):1866-1877. doi:10.1002/aur.1830Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL.Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis.Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(1):7-14. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672Ortug A, Guo Y, Feldman HA, et al.Human fetal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tells future emergence of autism spectrum disorders.The FASEB Journal. 2022;36(S1):fasebj.2022.36.S1.R2353. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2022.36.s1.r2353Levine SZ, Kodesh A, Viktorin A, Smith L, Uher R, Reichenberg A, Sandin S.Association of maternal use of folic acid and multivitamin supplements in the periods before and during pregnancy with the risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring.JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(2):176-184. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4050Bölte S, Girdler S, Marschik PB.The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder.Cell Mol Life Sci. 2019;76(7):1275-1297. doi:10.1007/s00018-018-2988-4Schmidt RJ, Iosif AM, Guerrero Angel E, Ozonoff S.Association of maternal prenatal vitamin use with risk for autism spectrum disorder recurrence in young siblings.JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 Apr 1;76(4):391-398. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.3901
Wiggs KK, Rickert ME, Sujan AC, Quinn PD, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P, Oberg AS, D’Onofrio BM.Antiseizure medication use during pregnancy and risk of ASD and ADHD in children.Neurology. 2020 Dec 15;95(24):e3232-e3240. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000010993
Man KKC, Tong HHY, Wong LYL, Chan EW, Simonoff E, Wong ICK.Exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2015;49:82-89. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.020
Sandin S, Schendel D, Magnusson P, Hultman C, et. al.Autism risk associated with parental age and with increasing difference in age between the parents.Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(5):693-700. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.70
Agrawal S, Rao SC, Bulsara MK, Patole SK.Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in preterm infants: A meta-analysis.Pediatrics.2018;142(3):e20180134. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-0134
Rowland J, Wilson CA.The association between gestational diabetes and ASD and ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):5136. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84573-3
Xu G, Jing J, Bowers K, Liu B, Bao W.Maternal diabetes and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;44(4):766-75. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1928-2
Bauer AZ, Swan SH, Kriebel D, Liew Z, Taylor HS, Bornehag CG, Andrade AM, Olsen J, Jensen RH, Mitchell RT, Skakkebaek NE, Jégou B, Kristensen DM.Paracetamol use during pregnancy - a call for precautionary action.Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2021;17(12):757-766. doi:10.1038/s41574-021-00553-7
Avella-Garcia CB, Julvez J, Fortuny J, Rebordosa C, García-Esteban R, Galán IR, Tardón A, Rodríguez-Bernal CL, Iñiguez C, Andiarena A, Santa-Marina L, Sunyer J.Acetaminophen use in pregnancy and neurodevelopment: attention function and autism spectrum symptoms.Int J Epidemiol. 2016 Dec 1;45(6):1987-1996. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw115
Liew Z, Ritz B, Virk J, Olsen J.Maternal use of acetaminophen during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders in childhood: A Danish national birth cohort study.Autism Res. 2016 Sep;9(9):951-8. doi:10.1002/aur.1591
Ji Y, et al.Association of cord plasma biomarkers of in utero acetaminophen exposure with risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in childhood.JAMA Psychiatry.2020 Feb 1;77(2):180-189. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3259
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.ACOG response to consensus statement on paracetamol use during pregnancy. September 29, 2021.
Schmidt RJ, Tancredi DJ, Krakowiak P, Hansen RL, Ozonoff S.Maternal intake of supplemental iron and risk of autism spectrum disorder.American Journal of Epidemiology. 2014;180(9):890-900. doi:10.1093/aje/kwu208
Marí-Bauset S, Donat-Vargas C, Llópis-González A, et al.Endocrine disruptors and autism spectrum disorder in pregnancy: A review and evaluation of the quality of the epidemiological evidence.Children (Basel). 2018;5(12):157. doi:10.3390/children5120157
Chen SW, Zhong XS, Jiang LN, Zheng XY, Xiong YQ, Ma SJ, Qiu M, Huo ST, Ge J, Chen Q.Maternal autoimmune diseases and the risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Behav Brain Res. 2016;296:61-69. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.08.035
Jiang HY, Xu LL, Shao L, et al.Maternal infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Brain Behav Immun. 2016 Nov;58:165-172. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.06.005
Varcin KJ, Alvares GA, Uljarević M, Whitehouse AJO.Prenatal maternal stress events and phenotypic outcomes in autism spectrum disorder.Autism Res. 2017;10(11):1866-1877. doi:10.1002/aur.1830
Gardener H, Spiegelman D, Buka SL.Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis.Br J Psychiatry. 2009;195(1):7-14. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672
Ortug A, Guo Y, Feldman HA, et al.Human fetal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tells future emergence of autism spectrum disorders.The FASEB Journal. 2022;36(S1):fasebj.2022.36.S1.R2353. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2022.36.s1.r2353
Levine SZ, Kodesh A, Viktorin A, Smith L, Uher R, Reichenberg A, Sandin S.Association of maternal use of folic acid and multivitamin supplements in the periods before and during pregnancy with the risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring.JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(2):176-184. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4050
Bölte S, Girdler S, Marschik PB.The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder.Cell Mol Life Sci. 2019;76(7):1275-1297. doi:10.1007/s00018-018-2988-4
Schmidt RJ, Iosif AM, Guerrero Angel E, Ozonoff S.Association of maternal prenatal vitamin use with risk for autism spectrum disorder recurrence in young siblings.JAMA Psychiatry. 2019 Apr 1;76(4):391-398. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.3901
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