Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhat They AreHow They Are RelatedTelling the DifferenceDiagnosisTreatmentPreventionComplications
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
What They Are
How They Are Related
Telling the Difference
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Complications
Kidney stones and urinary tract infections (UTIs) are closely linked. Kidney stones can obstruct the flow of urine, which can lead to a UTI, while recurrent UTIs can lead to the formation of a specific type of stone, called a struvite stone (or infection stone), and may even contribute to the formation of other types of stones.
MoMo Productions / Getty Images
Kidney Stones and UTIs Affect the Urinary Tract
Theurinary tractis the body’s filtration system. It does the following:
Kidney stones and UTIs are two of the most common conditions affecting the urinary tract. Though they have similar symptoms, they affect the urinary system differently.
Kidney Stones
Kidney stones, also known asrenal calculi, are hardened clumps of minerals that form in thekidneys. When a stone is dislodged, it is passed through the organs of the urinary tract, where it can cause pain and other symptoms.
Renal colicis the waves of pain that occur when a stone becomes stuck and tries to make its way down narrow tubes calleduretersthat connect the kidneys to thebladder. Symptoms almost entirely cease as the stone passes into the bladder and is finally expelled through theurethra(the tube through which urine exits the body).
Depending on the size of a stone, this process can take anywhere from a week to more than a month. Treatment may be needed if a stone is excessively large or does not pass on its own.
UTIs
UTIs are most commonly caused when bacteria from the bowel enter the urethra. This can happen when wiping after a bowel movement or after having sex. People who useurinary cathetersordiaphragmsare also vulnerable to infection.
While it is possible for a mild lower UTI to clear on its own, most confirmed cases are treated with oralantibiotics. Upper UTIs are always treated.
Studies Show Mutual Coexistence
Despite differences in how they cause disease, kidney stones and UTIs are closely linked and can even coexist (be present at the same time). Even so, their connection is something of a chicken-and-egg situation, where it can be difficult to tell which caused which.
How Recurrent UTIs Cause Kidney Stones
The four major types of kidney stones differ in their composition and causes. One of the four types, called a struvite stone, is directly linked to recurrent UTIs. Also referred to as an “infection stone,” struvite stones account for only around 4% of all kidney stones.
Struvite stones form in the presence of bacteria (likeProteusandKlebsiellaspecies) that secrete an enzyme calledurease. Urease, in turn, breaks down urea in urine into ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Stone formation occurs when ammonia creates an alkaline environment, leading tomagnesium, ammonium, andphosphatecrystals, called struvite.
Though struvite stones are the direct result of recurrent UTIs, there is increasing evidence that bacterial colonization in the urinary tract can lead to the formation of other, more common kidney stones.This includescalcium oxalate stonesthat account for 75% of all kidney stones.
However, it is unclear whether UTIs actually contribute to the formation of non-struvite stones or simply exist at the same time.
In the latter scenario, the blockage of a ureter and stagnation of urine flow can cause bacteria to accumulate around the stone and establish an infection. The longer it takes topass a stone, the greater the opportunity for a concurrent UTI.
More research is needed.
How Kidney Stones Cause UTIs
The risk of UTIs had no relationship to the type of kidney stone a person had.
While the actual cause of these infections is poorly understood, early research suggests that up to 28% of people who have had a kidney stone have persistent, detectable levels of bacteria in their urine (referred to asbacteriuria). This rate far exceeds what is seen in the general population.
While bacteriuria is often asymptomatic and harmless, the disproportionately high rates seen in people with kidney stones may explain why they are more frequently affected. People with struvite stones are at the greatest risk, many of whom have detectable levels ofProteusin their urine.
Kidney Stones vs. UTIs: How To Tell the Difference
Here is a list of symptoms commonly experienced with each:
Kidney StonesSharp, stabbing pain on your back and side (flank pain)Waves of pain lasting 20 to 60 minutesNausea or vomitingFever with chillsFrequent need to urinatePain with urinationReduced urine outputBlood in urineCloudy or smelly urine (with a co-occurring UTI)UTIsAchy pain or pressure in the lower abdomenConstant, dull flank pain (if a kidney infection is involved)Nausea or vomitingFever with chillFrequent need to urinatePain with urinationCloudy or smelly urineBlood-tinged urine
Kidney StonesSharp, stabbing pain on your back and side (flank pain)Waves of pain lasting 20 to 60 minutesNausea or vomitingFever with chillsFrequent need to urinatePain with urinationReduced urine outputBlood in urineCloudy or smelly urine (with a co-occurring UTI)
Sharp, stabbing pain on your back and side (flank pain)
Waves of pain lasting 20 to 60 minutes
Nausea or vomiting
Fever with chills
Frequent need to urinate
Pain with urination
Reduced urine output
Blood in urine
Cloudy or smelly urine (with a co-occurring UTI)
UTIsAchy pain or pressure in the lower abdomenConstant, dull flank pain (if a kidney infection is involved)Nausea or vomitingFever with chillFrequent need to urinatePain with urinationCloudy or smelly urineBlood-tinged urine
Achy pain or pressure in the lower abdomen
Constant, dull flank pain (if a kidney infection is involved)
Fever with chill
Cloudy or smelly urine
Blood-tinged urine
Among the key differences between kidney stones and UTIs are the following:
Getting an Accurate Diagnosis
If a kidney stone is suspected, you will typically be referred to a specialist called aurologist. They can perform tests and procedures to determine if your symptoms are related to a kidney stone, UTI, or both.
The diagnosis would also invariably involve aurinalysisto check for abnormalities in your urine, including evidence of blood or excessivewhite blood cells(another sign of infection).
If a kidney stone is suspected, the urologist will order one of several imaging studies to confirm the suspicion, including:
These studies can also check for abnormalities in the urinary tract which may be causing recurrent UTIs. If needed, acystoscopy—involving the insertion of a lighted scope into the urethra—can directly check for blockages or other structural abnormalities.
If a UTI is involved, aurine cultureand urine DNA test may be ordered to pinpoint which species of bacteria is involved. This may aid with the selection of antibiotics.
Treatment and Pain Management
Kidney stones and UTIs both require treatment. The treatment can vary based on the severity of the condition and other factors.
Unless they are large, most kidney stones are allowed to pass on their own. During this time, the focus is placed on increasing fluid intake to help flush out the stone and managing pain with over-the-counter (OTC) pain relievers likeTylenol (acetaminophen).
For stones over 5 millimeters (mm) in size,alpha-blockerslike Flomax (tamsulosin) may be prescribed to relax smooth muscles of the urinary tract and ease the passage of a stone.
If a stone does not pass within four weeks or is larger than 10 mm, specialist procedures may be needed to remove the stone before kidney damage occurs.
Options include:
UTIs are treated with antibiotics. The choice of antibiotic can differ, with mild infections often treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics and severe or recurrent infections treated with antibiotics with strong activity against the specific bacterial type.
The antibiotics must be taken to completion as prescribed to avoid the rebound of infection and reduce the risk ofantibiotic resistance(the bacteria are not as susceptible to the antibiotic).The course can last anywhere from two to three days to seven to 14 days.
Increased fluid intake is recommended to help flush bacteria out of the urinary tract. Heating pads andOTC painkillerscan help ease pain or discomfort. If the infection causes severe spasms, your provider may prescribe a drug calledphenazopyridineto help ease symptoms.
How to Prevent or Minimize Recurrence
You can’t always avoid a kidney stone or UTI, but there are steps you can take to reduce the risk, particularly if you’ve had previous or recurrent bouts.
To reduce your risk ofkidney stones:
To help reduce the risk ofUTIs:
Can UTIs Lead to Kidney Damage?
By and large, upper UTIs affecting the kidneys are more serious than lower UTIs affecting the bladder and urethra.
With pyelonephritis, the spread of infection from the lower urinary tract can lead to the formation of a pus-filledabscesswhich can permanently damage the structure of a kidney.
It also increases the risk of a condition calledurosepsisin which the UTI spreads into the bloodstream and triggers a potentially deadly, whole-body reaction, leading to an extreme drop in blood pressure,kidney failure, andseptic shock.
Although urosepsis can occur with cystitis, this is far less common than when the kidneys are involved.
A kidney stone can also cause kidney damage if a ureter is completely blocked. The resulting backflow of urine can place extreme stress on a kidney, leading to a condition calledhydronephrosis.
Although many cases of hydronephrosis are mild and resolve on their own, severe cases can lead to kidney damage if left untreated. In such cases, surgery may be necessary.
Summary
Because kidney stones and UTIs are closely related and share many of the same symptoms, it is important to seek care from a urologist who can differentiate the causes and dispense the appropriate treatment.
29 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Brain E, Geraghty RM, Cook P, et al.Risk of UTI in kidney stone formers: a matched-cohort study over a median follow-up of 19 years.World J Urol.2021;39:3095–3101. doi:10.1007/s00345-020-03564-7Hickling D, Sun TT, Wu XR.Anatomy and physiology of the urinary tract: relation to host defense and microbial infection.Microbiol Spectr. 2015 Aug;3(4):10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365American Urological Association.Medical student curriculum: kidney stones.Office on Women’s Health.Urinary tract infections.MedlinePlus.Urinary tract infections.Ripa F, Pietropaolo A, Montanari E, Hameed BMZ, Gauhar V, Somani BK.Association of kidney stones and recurrent UTIs: the chicken and egg situation. A systematic review of literature.Curr Urol Rep. 2022;23(9):165–174. doi:10.1007/s11934-022-01103-yChen T, Qian B, Zou J, et al.Oxalate as a potent promoter of kidney stone formation.Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1159616. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1159616Lemberger U, Pjevac P, Hausman B, et al.The microbiome of kidney stones and urine of patients with nephrolithiasis.Urolithiasis. 2023;51(1):27. doi:10.1007/s00240-022-01403-5National Kidney Foundation.Kidney stones.National Kidney Foundation.Urinary tract infections.MedlinePlus.Urinalysis.John Hopkins Medicine.Urinary tract infections.Neisus A, Lipkin ME, Rassweiler JJ, Preminger GM, Knoll T.Shock wave lithotripsy; the new phoenix?World J Urol.2015;33(2):213-21. doi:10.1007/s00345-014-1369-3Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-9. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091Heidar MFA, Deghelli JA, Yacoubian AA, Khauli RB.Management of urinary tract infection in women: a practical approach for everyday practice.Urol Ann. 2019;11(4):339–346. doi:10.4103/UA.UA_104_19Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance facts.Mitchell T, Kumar P, Reddy T, et al.Dietary oxalate and kidney stone formation.Am J Physiol Renal Physiol.2019;316(3):F409–13. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00373.2018Gul Z, Monga M.Medical and dietary therapy for kidney stone prevention.Korean J Urol.2014;55(12):775–9. doi:10.4111/kju.2014.55.12.775Xu C, Zhang C, Wang XL, et al.Self-fluid management in prevention of kidney stones: a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies.Medicine (Baltimore).2015;94(27):e1042. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000001042NYU Langone Health.Preventing kidney stones.Harvard Health.Urinary tract infection in women.American Urological Association.Recurrent uncomplicated urinary tract infections in women: AUA/CUA/SUFU guideline (2022).McGill University Office of Science and Society.Does peeing after sex prevent STIs?Petcu CT, Stehr E, Isaac JP, Desai D.Management of paediatric recurrent urinary tract infections and challenges in special patient populations.Aust J Gen Pract. 2021;50(7):458-464. doi:10.31128/AJGP-03-21-5922Kaur R, Kaur R.Symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections.Postgrad Med J. 2021;97(1154):803-812. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139090Keenan DB, O’Rourke DM, Courtney AE.Pyelonephritis can lead to life-threatening complications.Practitioner. 2017;261(1801):17-20.Dreger NM, Degener S, Ahmad-Nejad P, Wöbker G, Roth S.Urosepsis–etiology, diagnosis, and treatment.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2015;112(49):837–848. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0837National Kidney Foundation.Hydronephrosis.
29 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Brain E, Geraghty RM, Cook P, et al.Risk of UTI in kidney stone formers: a matched-cohort study over a median follow-up of 19 years.World J Urol.2021;39:3095–3101. doi:10.1007/s00345-020-03564-7Hickling D, Sun TT, Wu XR.Anatomy and physiology of the urinary tract: relation to host defense and microbial infection.Microbiol Spectr. 2015 Aug;3(4):10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365American Urological Association.Medical student curriculum: kidney stones.Office on Women’s Health.Urinary tract infections.MedlinePlus.Urinary tract infections.Ripa F, Pietropaolo A, Montanari E, Hameed BMZ, Gauhar V, Somani BK.Association of kidney stones and recurrent UTIs: the chicken and egg situation. A systematic review of literature.Curr Urol Rep. 2022;23(9):165–174. doi:10.1007/s11934-022-01103-yChen T, Qian B, Zou J, et al.Oxalate as a potent promoter of kidney stone formation.Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1159616. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1159616Lemberger U, Pjevac P, Hausman B, et al.The microbiome of kidney stones and urine of patients with nephrolithiasis.Urolithiasis. 2023;51(1):27. doi:10.1007/s00240-022-01403-5National Kidney Foundation.Kidney stones.National Kidney Foundation.Urinary tract infections.MedlinePlus.Urinalysis.John Hopkins Medicine.Urinary tract infections.Neisus A, Lipkin ME, Rassweiler JJ, Preminger GM, Knoll T.Shock wave lithotripsy; the new phoenix?World J Urol.2015;33(2):213-21. doi:10.1007/s00345-014-1369-3Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-9. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091Heidar MFA, Deghelli JA, Yacoubian AA, Khauli RB.Management of urinary tract infection in women: a practical approach for everyday practice.Urol Ann. 2019;11(4):339–346. doi:10.4103/UA.UA_104_19Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance facts.Mitchell T, Kumar P, Reddy T, et al.Dietary oxalate and kidney stone formation.Am J Physiol Renal Physiol.2019;316(3):F409–13. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00373.2018Gul Z, Monga M.Medical and dietary therapy for kidney stone prevention.Korean J Urol.2014;55(12):775–9. doi:10.4111/kju.2014.55.12.775Xu C, Zhang C, Wang XL, et al.Self-fluid management in prevention of kidney stones: a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies.Medicine (Baltimore).2015;94(27):e1042. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000001042NYU Langone Health.Preventing kidney stones.Harvard Health.Urinary tract infection in women.American Urological Association.Recurrent uncomplicated urinary tract infections in women: AUA/CUA/SUFU guideline (2022).McGill University Office of Science and Society.Does peeing after sex prevent STIs?Petcu CT, Stehr E, Isaac JP, Desai D.Management of paediatric recurrent urinary tract infections and challenges in special patient populations.Aust J Gen Pract. 2021;50(7):458-464. doi:10.31128/AJGP-03-21-5922Kaur R, Kaur R.Symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections.Postgrad Med J. 2021;97(1154):803-812. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139090Keenan DB, O’Rourke DM, Courtney AE.Pyelonephritis can lead to life-threatening complications.Practitioner. 2017;261(1801):17-20.Dreger NM, Degener S, Ahmad-Nejad P, Wöbker G, Roth S.Urosepsis–etiology, diagnosis, and treatment.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2015;112(49):837–848. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0837National Kidney Foundation.Hydronephrosis.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Brain E, Geraghty RM, Cook P, et al.Risk of UTI in kidney stone formers: a matched-cohort study over a median follow-up of 19 years.World J Urol.2021;39:3095–3101. doi:10.1007/s00345-020-03564-7Hickling D, Sun TT, Wu XR.Anatomy and physiology of the urinary tract: relation to host defense and microbial infection.Microbiol Spectr. 2015 Aug;3(4):10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365American Urological Association.Medical student curriculum: kidney stones.Office on Women’s Health.Urinary tract infections.MedlinePlus.Urinary tract infections.Ripa F, Pietropaolo A, Montanari E, Hameed BMZ, Gauhar V, Somani BK.Association of kidney stones and recurrent UTIs: the chicken and egg situation. A systematic review of literature.Curr Urol Rep. 2022;23(9):165–174. doi:10.1007/s11934-022-01103-yChen T, Qian B, Zou J, et al.Oxalate as a potent promoter of kidney stone formation.Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1159616. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1159616Lemberger U, Pjevac P, Hausman B, et al.The microbiome of kidney stones and urine of patients with nephrolithiasis.Urolithiasis. 2023;51(1):27. doi:10.1007/s00240-022-01403-5National Kidney Foundation.Kidney stones.National Kidney Foundation.Urinary tract infections.MedlinePlus.Urinalysis.John Hopkins Medicine.Urinary tract infections.Neisus A, Lipkin ME, Rassweiler JJ, Preminger GM, Knoll T.Shock wave lithotripsy; the new phoenix?World J Urol.2015;33(2):213-21. doi:10.1007/s00345-014-1369-3Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-9. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091Heidar MFA, Deghelli JA, Yacoubian AA, Khauli RB.Management of urinary tract infection in women: a practical approach for everyday practice.Urol Ann. 2019;11(4):339–346. doi:10.4103/UA.UA_104_19Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance facts.Mitchell T, Kumar P, Reddy T, et al.Dietary oxalate and kidney stone formation.Am J Physiol Renal Physiol.2019;316(3):F409–13. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00373.2018Gul Z, Monga M.Medical and dietary therapy for kidney stone prevention.Korean J Urol.2014;55(12):775–9. doi:10.4111/kju.2014.55.12.775Xu C, Zhang C, Wang XL, et al.Self-fluid management in prevention of kidney stones: a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies.Medicine (Baltimore).2015;94(27):e1042. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000001042NYU Langone Health.Preventing kidney stones.Harvard Health.Urinary tract infection in women.American Urological Association.Recurrent uncomplicated urinary tract infections in women: AUA/CUA/SUFU guideline (2022).McGill University Office of Science and Society.Does peeing after sex prevent STIs?Petcu CT, Stehr E, Isaac JP, Desai D.Management of paediatric recurrent urinary tract infections and challenges in special patient populations.Aust J Gen Pract. 2021;50(7):458-464. doi:10.31128/AJGP-03-21-5922Kaur R, Kaur R.Symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections.Postgrad Med J. 2021;97(1154):803-812. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139090Keenan DB, O’Rourke DM, Courtney AE.Pyelonephritis can lead to life-threatening complications.Practitioner. 2017;261(1801):17-20.Dreger NM, Degener S, Ahmad-Nejad P, Wöbker G, Roth S.Urosepsis–etiology, diagnosis, and treatment.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2015;112(49):837–848. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0837National Kidney Foundation.Hydronephrosis.
Brain E, Geraghty RM, Cook P, et al.Risk of UTI in kidney stone formers: a matched-cohort study over a median follow-up of 19 years.World J Urol.2021;39:3095–3101. doi:10.1007/s00345-020-03564-7
Hickling D, Sun TT, Wu XR.Anatomy and physiology of the urinary tract: relation to host defense and microbial infection.Microbiol Spectr. 2015 Aug;3(4):10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.UTI-0016-2012
Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365
American Urological Association.Medical student curriculum: kidney stones.
Office on Women’s Health.Urinary tract infections.
MedlinePlus.Urinary tract infections.
Ripa F, Pietropaolo A, Montanari E, Hameed BMZ, Gauhar V, Somani BK.Association of kidney stones and recurrent UTIs: the chicken and egg situation. A systematic review of literature.Curr Urol Rep. 2022;23(9):165–174. doi:10.1007/s11934-022-01103-y
Chen T, Qian B, Zou J, et al.Oxalate as a potent promoter of kidney stone formation.Front Med (Lausanne). 2023;10:1159616. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1159616
Lemberger U, Pjevac P, Hausman B, et al.The microbiome of kidney stones and urine of patients with nephrolithiasis.Urolithiasis. 2023;51(1):27. doi:10.1007/s00240-022-01403-5
National Kidney Foundation.Kidney stones.
National Kidney Foundation.Urinary tract infections.
MedlinePlus.Urinalysis.
John Hopkins Medicine.Urinary tract infections.
Neisus A, Lipkin ME, Rassweiler JJ, Preminger GM, Knoll T.Shock wave lithotripsy; the new phoenix?World J Urol.2015;33(2):213-21. doi:10.1007/s00345-014-1369-3
Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-9. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091
Heidar MFA, Deghelli JA, Yacoubian AA, Khauli RB.Management of urinary tract infection in women: a practical approach for everyday practice.Urol Ann. 2019;11(4):339–346. doi:10.4103/UA.UA_104_19
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance facts.
Mitchell T, Kumar P, Reddy T, et al.Dietary oxalate and kidney stone formation.Am J Physiol Renal Physiol.2019;316(3):F409–13. doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00373.2018
Gul Z, Monga M.Medical and dietary therapy for kidney stone prevention.Korean J Urol.2014;55(12):775–9. doi:10.4111/kju.2014.55.12.775
Xu C, Zhang C, Wang XL, et al.Self-fluid management in prevention of kidney stones: a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies.Medicine (Baltimore).2015;94(27):e1042. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000001042
NYU Langone Health.Preventing kidney stones.
Harvard Health.Urinary tract infection in women.
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Petcu CT, Stehr E, Isaac JP, Desai D.Management of paediatric recurrent urinary tract infections and challenges in special patient populations.Aust J Gen Pract. 2021;50(7):458-464. doi:10.31128/AJGP-03-21-5922
Kaur R, Kaur R.Symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections.Postgrad Med J. 2021;97(1154):803-812. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139090
Keenan DB, O’Rourke DM, Courtney AE.Pyelonephritis can lead to life-threatening complications.Practitioner. 2017;261(1801):17-20.
Dreger NM, Degener S, Ahmad-Nejad P, Wöbker G, Roth S.Urosepsis–etiology, diagnosis, and treatment.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2015;112(49):837–848. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2015.0837
National Kidney Foundation.Hydronephrosis.
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