Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsCausesTransmissionSimilar ConditionsPreventionFrequently Asked Questions

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Table of Contents

Causes

Transmission

Similar Conditions

Prevention

Frequently Asked Questions

Because BV affects the vagina, people with a penis can’t get it. However, research suggests that men can play a role in transmitting this infection to their female sexual partners, likely due to bacteria that live on the penis.

This article provides an overview of bacterial vaginosis and outlines the ways that male sexual partners may contribute to this infection.

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Female nurse explaining to young male patient at office in hospital

A Note on Gender and Sex TerminologyVerywell Health acknowledges thatsex and gender are related concepts, but they are not the same.Sex refers to biology: chromosomal makeup, hormones, and anatomy. People are most often assigned male or female at birth based on their external anatomy; some people do not fit into that sex binary and are intersex.Gender describes a person’s internal sense of self as a woman, man, nonbinary person, or another gender, and the associated social and cultural ideas about roles, behaviors, expressions, and characteristics.Research studies sometimes don’t use the terminology in this way. For example, terms that describe gender (“woman,” “man”) may be used when terms for sex (“female,” “male”) are more appropriate.To reflect our sources accurately, this article uses terms like “female,” “male,” “woman,” and “man” as the sources use them.

A Note on Gender and Sex Terminology

Verywell Health acknowledges thatsex and gender are related concepts, but they are not the same.Sex refers to biology: chromosomal makeup, hormones, and anatomy. People are most often assigned male or female at birth based on their external anatomy; some people do not fit into that sex binary and are intersex.Gender describes a person’s internal sense of self as a woman, man, nonbinary person, or another gender, and the associated social and cultural ideas about roles, behaviors, expressions, and characteristics.Research studies sometimes don’t use the terminology in this way. For example, terms that describe gender (“woman,” “man”) may be used when terms for sex (“female,” “male”) are more appropriate.To reflect our sources accurately, this article uses terms like “female,” “male,” “woman,” and “man” as the sources use them.

Verywell Health acknowledges thatsex and gender are related concepts, but they are not the same.

Research studies sometimes don’t use the terminology in this way. For example, terms that describe gender (“woman,” “man”) may be used when terms for sex (“female,” “male”) are more appropriate.

To reflect our sources accurately, this article uses terms like “female,” “male,” “woman,” and “man” as the sources use them.

What Causes Bacterial Vaginosis?

Bacterial vaginosis is the result of an imbalance of bacteria that naturally live in the vagina.

This environment of bacteria—which includes “healthy” (beneficial) and “unhealthy” (unbeneficial) bacteria—is sometimes referred to asvaginal flora. When disturbed, harmful bacteria strains overgrow and cause an infection.

Experts are still researching what exactly causes this imbalance in BV infections. But they do know that certain activities related to personal hygiene and sexual activity can impact the vaginal flora and potentiallyincrease the risk of developing BV.These lifestyle factors include:

Early research indicates that genetics may play some part in a person’s risk for developing BV, though more evidence is needed.

Can Men Spread BV?

Experts are still exploring exactly how bacterial vaginosis is transmitted, but there is evidence that men play a part in transmission to their female sexual partners.

Just like the vaginal environment, naturally occurring bacteria live on the penis and the male urinary tract. If there are BV-related bacteria present, it’s possible that it can be transmitted to a female partner during sex.

Some research points out that BV infections may be particularly likely in people whose male partners have anuncircumcised penis, likely due to the bacteria-friendly environment underthe foreskin.

Is BV an STI?Even though BV is linked to sexual activity, experts don’t consider it to be a sexually transmitted infection (STI).Still, having BV can increase your risk of getting other STIs, so it’s a good idea to follow safer-sex practices, such as using a condom consistently.

Is BV an STI?

Even though BV is linked to sexual activity, experts don’t consider it to be a sexually transmitted infection (STI).Still, having BV can increase your risk of getting other STIs, so it’s a good idea to follow safer-sex practices, such as using a condom consistently.

What Conditions Cause Similar Symptoms in Men?

Bacterial vaginosis isn’t possible in men, but there are other conditions that cause similar symptoms like discharge, irritation, and painful urination.

Thrush

Penile thrushis a yeast infection on the penis.

It happens when a naturally occurring yeast known asCandida albicansovergrows on the penis. This can lead to symptoms like discharge, pain with urination, and itchiness. Although penile thrush doesn’t meet the criteria to be considered an STI, the funguscan still be transmitted through sexual contact.

STIs

STIsare transmitted primarily through sexual contact with another person who has the infection.

Some STIs in men cause symptoms that are similar to bacterial vaginosis, like discharge and irritation around the genital area. They include:

Consistently practicing safer sex can helpprevent STIs.

UTIs

There are several risk factors for developing a UTI, including having unprotected sex.

Balanitis

Balanitisis a condition that causes inflammation on the head of the penis. Many people notice discharge, itchiness, and pain during urination.

Balanitis is not transmitted through sex. It’s more common in people who haveuncircumcised penises. Other factors can also increase your chance of getting balanitis, such as poor personal hygiene and exposure to chemical irritants.

Common BV SymptomsBV doesn’t always cause noticeable symptoms, but it’s common to experience symptoms such as:Thin white or grayvaginal dischargethat may smell particularly unpleasantPain, irritation, or itchiness inside the vaginaBurning sensation while urinatingItching around the vagina

Common BV Symptoms

BV doesn’t always cause noticeable symptoms, but it’s common to experience symptoms such as:Thin white or grayvaginal dischargethat may smell particularly unpleasantPain, irritation, or itchiness inside the vaginaBurning sensation while urinatingItching around the vagina

BV doesn’t always cause noticeable symptoms, but it’s common to experience symptoms such as:

BV is a common infection. Fortunately, there are some steps that mayhelp prevent this infectionfrom forming.

Experts recommend:

Summary

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common infection that occurs when there’s a change in the vagina’s normal bacterial balance. The exact cause of BV isn’t clear, but it’s more likely to develop with activities that disrupt the vagina’s bacterial environment, such as douching, new or multiple sexual partners, IUD use, and not using condoms consistently.

A Word From Verywell

Bacterial vaginosis is a very common vaginal infection, so you shouldn’t feel embarrassed or ashamed if it develops. Be sure to seek aBV diagnosisand treatment with a healthcare provider, if accessible to you, because BV is linked to an increased risk of developing STIs, urinary infections, and pregnancy complications.

Frequently Asked QuestionsThere are no treatment options for male partners of a person with BV. Some studies have looked into potential antibiotic treatments for male sexual partners of a person with recurring BV, but more research is needed.Learn MoreHow Bacterial Vaginosis Is TreatedIt appears that male partners can play a role in your BV infection. Studies suggest that male sexual partners with BV-related bacteria around their penis increase their female sexual partner’s chances of developing the infection. These chances may be greater in male partners who are uncircumcised.It’s pretty common to get a recurring BV infection with the same sexual partner, even if you receive treatment.Experts can’t say for sure why this happens. It could be because the antibiotics didn’t completely clear the infection in the first place, or this same bacterium has been reintroduced to you from your partner or another source.

There are no treatment options for male partners of a person with BV. Some studies have looked into potential antibiotic treatments for male sexual partners of a person with recurring BV, but more research is needed.Learn MoreHow Bacterial Vaginosis Is Treated

There are no treatment options for male partners of a person with BV. Some studies have looked into potential antibiotic treatments for male sexual partners of a person with recurring BV, but more research is needed.

Learn MoreHow Bacterial Vaginosis Is Treated

It appears that male partners can play a role in your BV infection. Studies suggest that male sexual partners with BV-related bacteria around their penis increase their female sexual partner’s chances of developing the infection. These chances may be greater in male partners who are uncircumcised.

It’s pretty common to get a recurring BV infection with the same sexual partner, even if you receive treatment.Experts can’t say for sure why this happens. It could be because the antibiotics didn’t completely clear the infection in the first place, or this same bacterium has been reintroduced to you from your partner or another source.

22 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Mehta SD, Zhao D, Green SJ.The microbiome composition of a man’s penis predicts incident bacterial vaginosis in his female sex partner with high accuracy.Front Cell Infect Microbiol.2020;10:433. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.00433Onderdonk AB, Delaney ML, Fichorova RN.The human microbiome during bacterial vaginosis.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016;29(2):223–238. doi:10.1128/CMR.00075-15Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Bacterial vaginosis (BV).Ranjit E, Raghubanshi BR, Maskey S, Parajuli P.Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis and its association with risk factors among non pregnant women: A hospital based study.Int J Microbiol. 2018;2018:8349601. doi:10.1155/2018/8349601Wilson J.Managing recurrent bacterial vaginosis.Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80(1):8-11. doi:10.1136/sti.2002.002733Madden T, Grentzer JM, Secura GM, Allsworth JE, Peipert JF.Risk of bacterial vaginosis in users of the intrauterine device: a longitudinal study.Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39(3):217-22. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31823e68feBrotman RM, He X, Gajer P, et al.Association between cigarette smoking and the vaginal microbiota: a pilot study.BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:471. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-14-471Ryckman KK, Simhan HN, Krohn MA, Williams SM.Predicting risk of bacterial vaginosis: the role of race, smoking and corticotropin-releasing hormone-related genes.Mol Hum Reprod. 2009;15(2):131-137. doi:10.1093/molehr/gan081Abou Chacra L, Fenollar F, Diop K.Bacterial vaginosis: what do we currently know?.Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022;11:672429. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.672429Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, et al.Penile microbiota and female partner bacterial vaginosis in Rakai, Uganda.mBio. 2015;6(3):e00589. doi:10.1128/mBio.00589-15Manhart LE, Khosropour CM, Liu C, et al.Bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria in men: association of Leptotrichia/Sneathia spp. with nongonococcal urethritis.Sex Transm Dis. 2013;40(12):944-949. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000054Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, Serwadda D, Ravel J, Lester R, et al.Male circumcision significantly reduces prevalence and load of genital anaerobic bacteria.MBio. 2013;4(2):e00076. doi:10.1128/mBio.00076-13Planned Parenthood.STD awareness: is bacterial vaginosis a sexually transmitted disease?.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021: bacterial vaginosis.MedlinePlus.Sexually transmitted infections.MedlinePlus.Bacterial vaginosis.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Bacterial vaginosis.Planned Parenthood.How can I avoid getting vaginitis?.Vodstrcil LA, Plummer EL, Doyle M, et al.Treating male partners of women with bacterial vaginosis (StepUp): a protocol for a randomised controlled trial to assess the clinical effectiveness of male partner treatment for reducing the risk of BV recurrence.BMC Infect Dis.2020(2):834. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05563-wBradshaw CS, Vodstrcil LA, Hocking JS, Law M, Pirotta M, Garland SM, et al.Recurrence of bacterial vaginosis is significantly associated with posttreatment sexual activities and hormonal contraceptive use.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(6):777–86. doi:10.1093/cid/cis1030Bradshaw CS, Morton AN, Hocking J, Garland SM, Morris MB, Moss LM, et al.High recurrence rates of bacterial vaginosis over the course of 12 months after oral metronidazole therapy and factors associated with recurrence.J Infect Dis. 2006;193(11):1478–89. doi:10.1086/503780Ratten LK, Plummer EL, Murray GL, Danielewski J, Fairley CK, Garland SM, et al.Sex is associated with the persistence of non-optimal vaginal microbiota following treatment for bacterial vaginosis: a prospective cohort study.BJOG. 2021;128(4):756–67. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16430

22 Sources

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Mehta SD, Zhao D, Green SJ.The microbiome composition of a man’s penis predicts incident bacterial vaginosis in his female sex partner with high accuracy.Front Cell Infect Microbiol.2020;10:433. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.00433Onderdonk AB, Delaney ML, Fichorova RN.The human microbiome during bacterial vaginosis.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016;29(2):223–238. doi:10.1128/CMR.00075-15Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Bacterial vaginosis (BV).Ranjit E, Raghubanshi BR, Maskey S, Parajuli P.Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis and its association with risk factors among non pregnant women: A hospital based study.Int J Microbiol. 2018;2018:8349601. doi:10.1155/2018/8349601Wilson J.Managing recurrent bacterial vaginosis.Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80(1):8-11. doi:10.1136/sti.2002.002733Madden T, Grentzer JM, Secura GM, Allsworth JE, Peipert JF.Risk of bacterial vaginosis in users of the intrauterine device: a longitudinal study.Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39(3):217-22. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31823e68feBrotman RM, He X, Gajer P, et al.Association between cigarette smoking and the vaginal microbiota: a pilot study.BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:471. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-14-471Ryckman KK, Simhan HN, Krohn MA, Williams SM.Predicting risk of bacterial vaginosis: the role of race, smoking and corticotropin-releasing hormone-related genes.Mol Hum Reprod. 2009;15(2):131-137. doi:10.1093/molehr/gan081Abou Chacra L, Fenollar F, Diop K.Bacterial vaginosis: what do we currently know?.Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022;11:672429. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.672429Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, et al.Penile microbiota and female partner bacterial vaginosis in Rakai, Uganda.mBio. 2015;6(3):e00589. doi:10.1128/mBio.00589-15Manhart LE, Khosropour CM, Liu C, et al.Bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria in men: association of Leptotrichia/Sneathia spp. with nongonococcal urethritis.Sex Transm Dis. 2013;40(12):944-949. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000054Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, Serwadda D, Ravel J, Lester R, et al.Male circumcision significantly reduces prevalence and load of genital anaerobic bacteria.MBio. 2013;4(2):e00076. doi:10.1128/mBio.00076-13Planned Parenthood.STD awareness: is bacterial vaginosis a sexually transmitted disease?.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021: bacterial vaginosis.MedlinePlus.Sexually transmitted infections.MedlinePlus.Bacterial vaginosis.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Bacterial vaginosis.Planned Parenthood.How can I avoid getting vaginitis?.Vodstrcil LA, Plummer EL, Doyle M, et al.Treating male partners of women with bacterial vaginosis (StepUp): a protocol for a randomised controlled trial to assess the clinical effectiveness of male partner treatment for reducing the risk of BV recurrence.BMC Infect Dis.2020(2):834. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05563-wBradshaw CS, Vodstrcil LA, Hocking JS, Law M, Pirotta M, Garland SM, et al.Recurrence of bacterial vaginosis is significantly associated with posttreatment sexual activities and hormonal contraceptive use.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(6):777–86. doi:10.1093/cid/cis1030Bradshaw CS, Morton AN, Hocking J, Garland SM, Morris MB, Moss LM, et al.High recurrence rates of bacterial vaginosis over the course of 12 months after oral metronidazole therapy and factors associated with recurrence.J Infect Dis. 2006;193(11):1478–89. doi:10.1086/503780Ratten LK, Plummer EL, Murray GL, Danielewski J, Fairley CK, Garland SM, et al.Sex is associated with the persistence of non-optimal vaginal microbiota following treatment for bacterial vaginosis: a prospective cohort study.BJOG. 2021;128(4):756–67. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16430

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Mehta SD, Zhao D, Green SJ.The microbiome composition of a man’s penis predicts incident bacterial vaginosis in his female sex partner with high accuracy.Front Cell Infect Microbiol.2020;10:433. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.00433Onderdonk AB, Delaney ML, Fichorova RN.The human microbiome during bacterial vaginosis.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016;29(2):223–238. doi:10.1128/CMR.00075-15Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Bacterial vaginosis (BV).Ranjit E, Raghubanshi BR, Maskey S, Parajuli P.Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis and its association with risk factors among non pregnant women: A hospital based study.Int J Microbiol. 2018;2018:8349601. doi:10.1155/2018/8349601Wilson J.Managing recurrent bacterial vaginosis.Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80(1):8-11. doi:10.1136/sti.2002.002733Madden T, Grentzer JM, Secura GM, Allsworth JE, Peipert JF.Risk of bacterial vaginosis in users of the intrauterine device: a longitudinal study.Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39(3):217-22. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31823e68feBrotman RM, He X, Gajer P, et al.Association between cigarette smoking and the vaginal microbiota: a pilot study.BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:471. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-14-471Ryckman KK, Simhan HN, Krohn MA, Williams SM.Predicting risk of bacterial vaginosis: the role of race, smoking and corticotropin-releasing hormone-related genes.Mol Hum Reprod. 2009;15(2):131-137. doi:10.1093/molehr/gan081Abou Chacra L, Fenollar F, Diop K.Bacterial vaginosis: what do we currently know?.Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022;11:672429. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.672429Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, et al.Penile microbiota and female partner bacterial vaginosis in Rakai, Uganda.mBio. 2015;6(3):e00589. doi:10.1128/mBio.00589-15Manhart LE, Khosropour CM, Liu C, et al.Bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria in men: association of Leptotrichia/Sneathia spp. with nongonococcal urethritis.Sex Transm Dis. 2013;40(12):944-949. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000054Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, Serwadda D, Ravel J, Lester R, et al.Male circumcision significantly reduces prevalence and load of genital anaerobic bacteria.MBio. 2013;4(2):e00076. doi:10.1128/mBio.00076-13Planned Parenthood.STD awareness: is bacterial vaginosis a sexually transmitted disease?.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021: bacterial vaginosis.MedlinePlus.Sexually transmitted infections.MedlinePlus.Bacterial vaginosis.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Bacterial vaginosis.Planned Parenthood.How can I avoid getting vaginitis?.Vodstrcil LA, Plummer EL, Doyle M, et al.Treating male partners of women with bacterial vaginosis (StepUp): a protocol for a randomised controlled trial to assess the clinical effectiveness of male partner treatment for reducing the risk of BV recurrence.BMC Infect Dis.2020(2):834. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05563-wBradshaw CS, Vodstrcil LA, Hocking JS, Law M, Pirotta M, Garland SM, et al.Recurrence of bacterial vaginosis is significantly associated with posttreatment sexual activities and hormonal contraceptive use.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(6):777–86. doi:10.1093/cid/cis1030Bradshaw CS, Morton AN, Hocking J, Garland SM, Morris MB, Moss LM, et al.High recurrence rates of bacterial vaginosis over the course of 12 months after oral metronidazole therapy and factors associated with recurrence.J Infect Dis. 2006;193(11):1478–89. doi:10.1086/503780Ratten LK, Plummer EL, Murray GL, Danielewski J, Fairley CK, Garland SM, et al.Sex is associated with the persistence of non-optimal vaginal microbiota following treatment for bacterial vaginosis: a prospective cohort study.BJOG. 2021;128(4):756–67. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16430

Mehta SD, Zhao D, Green SJ.The microbiome composition of a man’s penis predicts incident bacterial vaginosis in his female sex partner with high accuracy.Front Cell Infect Microbiol.2020;10:433. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.00433

Onderdonk AB, Delaney ML, Fichorova RN.The human microbiome during bacterial vaginosis.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016;29(2):223–238. doi:10.1128/CMR.00075-15

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Bacterial vaginosis (BV).

Ranjit E, Raghubanshi BR, Maskey S, Parajuli P.Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis and its association with risk factors among non pregnant women: A hospital based study.Int J Microbiol. 2018;2018:8349601. doi:10.1155/2018/8349601

Wilson J.Managing recurrent bacterial vaginosis.Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80(1):8-11. doi:10.1136/sti.2002.002733

Madden T, Grentzer JM, Secura GM, Allsworth JE, Peipert JF.Risk of bacterial vaginosis in users of the intrauterine device: a longitudinal study.Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39(3):217-22. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31823e68fe

Brotman RM, He X, Gajer P, et al.Association between cigarette smoking and the vaginal microbiota: a pilot study.BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:471. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-14-471

Ryckman KK, Simhan HN, Krohn MA, Williams SM.Predicting risk of bacterial vaginosis: the role of race, smoking and corticotropin-releasing hormone-related genes.Mol Hum Reprod. 2009;15(2):131-137. doi:10.1093/molehr/gan081

Abou Chacra L, Fenollar F, Diop K.Bacterial vaginosis: what do we currently know?.Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2022;11:672429. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2021.672429

Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, et al.Penile microbiota and female partner bacterial vaginosis in Rakai, Uganda.mBio. 2015;6(3):e00589. doi:10.1128/mBio.00589-15

Manhart LE, Khosropour CM, Liu C, et al.Bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria in men: association of Leptotrichia/Sneathia spp. with nongonococcal urethritis.Sex Transm Dis. 2013;40(12):944-949. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000054

Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AA, Serwadda D, Ravel J, Lester R, et al.Male circumcision significantly reduces prevalence and load of genital anaerobic bacteria.MBio. 2013;4(2):e00076. doi:10.1128/mBio.00076-13

Planned Parenthood.STD awareness: is bacterial vaginosis a sexually transmitted disease?.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Sexually transmitted infections treatment guidelines, 2021: bacterial vaginosis.

MedlinePlus.Sexually transmitted infections.

MedlinePlus.Bacterial vaginosis.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Bacterial vaginosis.

Planned Parenthood.How can I avoid getting vaginitis?.

Vodstrcil LA, Plummer EL, Doyle M, et al.Treating male partners of women with bacterial vaginosis (StepUp): a protocol for a randomised controlled trial to assess the clinical effectiveness of male partner treatment for reducing the risk of BV recurrence.BMC Infect Dis.2020(2):834. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05563-w

Bradshaw CS, Vodstrcil LA, Hocking JS, Law M, Pirotta M, Garland SM, et al.Recurrence of bacterial vaginosis is significantly associated with posttreatment sexual activities and hormonal contraceptive use.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(6):777–86. doi:10.1093/cid/cis1030

Bradshaw CS, Morton AN, Hocking J, Garland SM, Morris MB, Moss LM, et al.High recurrence rates of bacterial vaginosis over the course of 12 months after oral metronidazole therapy and factors associated with recurrence.J Infect Dis. 2006;193(11):1478–89. doi:10.1086/503780

Ratten LK, Plummer EL, Murray GL, Danielewski J, Fairley CK, Garland SM, et al.Sex is associated with the persistence of non-optimal vaginal microbiota following treatment for bacterial vaginosis: a prospective cohort study.BJOG. 2021;128(4):756–67. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16430

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