Verywell / Laura Porter
DEXA ScansA dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, or DEXA, scan is used to help providers determine a person’s risk of osteoporosis as well as show how much the disease has progressed. The scan produces a measure of a person’s bone density called the T-score.
DEXA Scans
A dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, or DEXA, scan is used to help providers determine a person’s risk of osteoporosis as well as show how much the disease has progressed. The scan produces a measure of a person’s bone density called the T-score.
A diagnosis of osteoporosis versus osteopenia is made based on a measurement that is used to determine how much bone has been lost (T-score).If you are on the line between osteoporosis and osteopenia, it might be possible to rebuild your bone density with medication and lifestyle changes. These strategies might help bring your T-score back into the range of osteopenia.
What Are the Stages of Osteoporosis?
How to Prevent Bone Loss
There are several ways that you can prevent bone loss.Lifestyle factors such as diet and exerciseas well as the medications you take regularly all influence your levels of bone density and the progression of osteoporosis.
Bisphosphonates
Cells that are designed to degrade bone tissue (osteoclasts) do so throughout a person’s life to allow old bone tissue to be replaced with new bone tissue. The action of osteoclasts is known as resorption. The replacement of old bone tissue with new bone tissue is known as bone remodeling.
In osteoporosis, osteoclasts break down bone tissue that is not replaced, which creates weak and brittle areas.
Is It Safe to Take Fosamax to Treat Osteoporosis?
Bisphosphonates are medications that inhibit the resorption action of osteoclasts, which slows the breakdown of bone tissue.Medications of this type, such as Fosamax (alendronate), Actonel (risedronate), and Reclast (zoledronic acid), are the most commonly prescribed to treat osteoporosis.
There are some common and some uncommon side effects that are associated with taking bisphosphonates, including:
5 Possible Risks of Taking Osteoporosis Medications
Calcitonin
Calcitonin medications are available as either a nasal spray or injection (Miacalcin).
The potential side effects of these medications include nasal irritation, skin flushing, a rash, an increase in urination, and nausea. These side effects are typically mild and do not last long.
Parathyroid Hormone
There are two types of PTH medications:
The most common side effects of Forteo (teriparatide) are generalized pain, joint aches, and nausea. Tymlos (abaloparatide) may cause kidney stones (because it increases calcium levels in the urine), dizziness, nausea, headache, irregular heartbeats, fatigue, and upper abdominal pain.
Hormone Replacement Therapy
People going throughmenopauseexperience an accelerated level of bone loss, which can lead to the onset or worsening of osteoporosis. When menopause begins, the levels of estrogen in the body drop significantly. Since estrogen helps protect bones, the reduced levels that occur in menopause mean that protection goes away.
Estrogen-deficient conditions in younger people (such as hypoestrogenism) can also lead to bone loss.
Estrogen therapy used to be given frequently to help prevent further bone loss in people who are either deficient in the hormone or are going through menopause. However, because it carries an increased risk of breast cancer, strokes, heart attacks, and blood clots, estrogen is now rarely recommended unless it is prescribed to also control other menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes that are negatively impacting a person’s quality of life.
Why Is Osteoporosis More Common in Women?
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators
Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) act in a similar way that estrogen does in the body and have the same effect on bones. They also have anti-estrogen effects on other types of tissues such as breast tissue. SERMs act similarly to hormone replacement therapy (HRT) but do not have the same side effects.
The potential side effects of SERMs can include:
Evenity
Evenity (romosozumab-aqqg) is a monoclonal antibody (a manufactured immune protein) that blocks the effects of the protein sclerostin, which normally inhibits bone formation. Blocking sclerostin leads to increased bone formation.
Evenity is indicated for osteoporosis in people who have gone through menopause and are at high risk of breaking a bone. However, as it may increase the risk of heart attack or stroke, the prescribing healthcare provider must carefully consider the risks versus benefits.
Diet and Supplements
Your diet plays a direct role in bone loss because there are several nutrients that are required to preserve bone density. Specific nutrients your body needs to maintain strong bonesinclude:
Your Teeth May Hold Clues About Your Risk for This Age-Related Condition
Calcium and BisphosphonatesCalcium can affect how well bisphosphonates work. Make sure to talk to your doctor if you are thinking of taking calcium or othersupplements for bone health.
Calcium and Bisphosphonates
Calcium can affect how well bisphosphonates work. Make sure to talk to your doctor if you are thinking of taking calcium or othersupplements for bone health.
Medications
Some medications can increase the loss of bone density. In some cases, people with a risk of developing osteoporosis or people who already have the disease will have to avoid medications such as:
When to Talk to Your DoctorIf you are taking medications that might affect your bone density, it’s important to talk to your doctor about your options. If you have osteoporosis or are at risk of developing it, you might be able to reduce your dose or take a different medication to help preserve your bone health.
When to Talk to Your Doctor
If you are taking medications that might affect your bone density, it’s important to talk to your doctor about your options. If you have osteoporosis or are at risk of developing it, you might be able to reduce your dose or take a different medication to help preserve your bone health.
What Causes Osteoporosis?
Exercise
Exercise helps with the maintenance and building of bones. During exercise, the muscles and ligaments pull on the bones they are closest to. This action evokes a response in the bone to stimulate more bone cells. Exercise can also help to increase muscle mass, balance, and coordination, which could reduce your risk of falling and getting a fracture.
Research has shown that the best types of exercises to prevent bone loss are resistance training and weight-bearing exercises.Specific exercisesthat can help with bone loss prevention include:
Since weight-bearing exercises have been shown to help stimulate bone growth, they are a vital component to reducing bone loss. These types of exercises should be done at least three times a week for a duration of one year for them to have positive effects on bone health.
Smoking and Alcohol Use
Research has found that tobacco use leads to a decrease in bone density; however, the reason why is complicated. Studies have shown that smoking can also increase the risk of fracture as well as slow bone healing after a fracture has occurred.
It is thought that smoking could lead to a decrease in bone density through many factors, including:
When it comes to alcohol use, research has found that there is a direct link between heavy drinking and osteoporosis—especially in people who drank heavily during adolescence and early adulthood.
The reason alcohol has such a negative effect on bone health is not well understood; however, people of any age consuming excess amounts of alcohol are found to have lower bone density and greater bone loss.
How Exercise Prevents Osteoporosis
Bone Density Screenings
While getting screened regularly for bone density will not help prevent bone loss per se, it will give you the opportunity to stay proactive about your bone health. If you know exactly where you are at in terms of bone loss, you can take the necessary steps to help prevent further bone loss or get the treatment you need to maintain strong and healthy bones.
What to Avoid If You Have OsteoporosisSmoking and alcohol use can increase your risk of bone loss that could lead to the onset or development of osteoporosis. If you have osteoporosis or are at high risk of developing the disease, avoid smoking cigarettes and limit your alcohol intake.
What to Avoid If You Have Osteoporosis
Smoking and alcohol use can increase your risk of bone loss that could lead to the onset or development of osteoporosis. If you have osteoporosis or are at high risk of developing the disease, avoid smoking cigarettes and limit your alcohol intake.
Summary
Osteoporosis comes with the serious consequences of having weak, brittle bones, such as frequent fractures, which can be debilitating and, in some cases, fatal. That said, whether you already have the disease or are at an increased risk of developing it, there are ways you can help prevent further bone loss and build up your bone density.
Osteoporosis Treatment Options
Frequently Asked QuestionsThere are several risk factors for osteoporosis, some of which can be avoided and some of which cannot. Genetics, ethnicity, and age are all unavoidable factors that play a role in the development of osteoporosis. Other factors that can be used to help prevent bone loss include addressing nutrition and vitamin deficiencies, quitting smoking and limiting alcohol use, and increasing physical exercise.It can be difficult to determine how fast the disease progresses because it is different for everyone. Once a person reaches the age of 50, the rate at which their bone breaks down increases. That is why age is a driving factor of osteoporosis. Typically, bone loss continues to happen beyond that age, but the rate at which it progresses will depend on a number of factors such as diet, exercise levels, hormone deficiencies, and delayed treatment.Learn MoreCoping With Osteoporosis
Frequently Asked Questions
There are several risk factors for osteoporosis, some of which can be avoided and some of which cannot. Genetics, ethnicity, and age are all unavoidable factors that play a role in the development of osteoporosis. Other factors that can be used to help prevent bone loss include addressing nutrition and vitamin deficiencies, quitting smoking and limiting alcohol use, and increasing physical exercise.
It can be difficult to determine how fast the disease progresses because it is different for everyone. Once a person reaches the age of 50, the rate at which their bone breaks down increases. That is why age is a driving factor of osteoporosis. Typically, bone loss continues to happen beyond that age, but the rate at which it progresses will depend on a number of factors such as diet, exercise levels, hormone deficiencies, and delayed treatment.Learn MoreCoping With Osteoporosis
It can be difficult to determine how fast the disease progresses because it is different for everyone. Once a person reaches the age of 50, the rate at which their bone breaks down increases. That is why age is a driving factor of osteoporosis. Typically, bone loss continues to happen beyond that age, but the rate at which it progresses will depend on a number of factors such as diet, exercise levels, hormone deficiencies, and delayed treatment.
Learn MoreCoping With Osteoporosis
24 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Sözen T, Özışık L, Başaran NÇ.An overview and management of osteoporosis.Eur J Rheumatol.2017 Mar;4(1):46-56. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.048Bone Health and Osteoporosis Foundation.Bone Density Exam/Testing.Diab DL, Watts NB.Bisphosphonates in the treatment of osteoporosis.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2012 Sep;41(3):487-506. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2012.04.007Health Link BC.Osteoporosis: Should I take Bisphosphonate Medicines.Pappa HM, Saslowsky TM, Filip-Dhima R, et al.Efficacy and harms of nasal calcitonin in improving bone density in young patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial.Am J Gastroenterol.2011 Aug;106(8):1527-1543. doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.129Augustine M, Horwitz MJ.Parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related protein analogs as therapies for osteoporosis.Curr Osteoporos Rep.2013 Dec;11(4):400-406. doi:10.1007/s11914-013-0171-2Haas AV, Leboff MS.Osteoanabolic Agents for Osteoporosis.J Endocr Soc.2018;2(8):922-932. doi:10.1210/js.2018-00118National Osteoporosis Foundation.What Woman Need to Know.Gambacciani M, Levancini M.Hormone replacement therapy and the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis.Prz Menopauzalny.2014 Sep;13(4):213-220. doi:10.5114/pm.2014.44996U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).Raloxifene Medication Guide.Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves new treatment for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at high risk of fracture.Mangano KM, Sahni S, Kerstetter JE.Dietary protein is beneficial to bone health under conditions of adequate calcium intake: an update on clinical research.Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care.2014 Jan;17(1):69-74. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000013Kerstetter JE, Bihuniak JD, Brindisi J, et al.The Effect of a Whey Protein Supplement on Bone Mass in Older Caucasian Adults.J Clin Endocrinol Metab.2015 Jun;100(6):2214-2222. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-3792Brzezińska O, Łukasik Z, Makowska J, et al.Role of Vitamin C in Osteoporosis Development and Treatment-A Literature Review.Nutrients.2020 Aug 10;12(8):2394. doi:10.3390/nu12082394Cleveland Clinic.Osteoporosis: Prevention with Calcium Treatment.Lips P, van Schoor NM.The effect of vitamin D on bone and osteoporosis.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab.2011 Aug;25(4):585-591. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2011.05.002Capozzi A, Scambia G, Migliaccio S, et al.Role of vitamin K2 in bone metabolism: a point of view and a short reappraisal of the literature.Gynecol Endocrinol.2020 Apr;36(4):285-288. doi:10.1080/09513590.2019.1689554König D, Oesser S, Scharla S, et al.Specific Collagen Peptides Improve Bone Mineral Density and Bone Markers in Postmenopausal Women-A Randomized Controlled Study.Nutrients.2018 Jan 16;10(1):97. doi:10.3390/nu10010097American Bone Health.Medications That Can Be Bad For Your Bones.Daly RM, Dalla Via J, Duckham RL, et al.Exercise for the prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: an evidence-based guide to the optimal prescription.Braz J Phys Ther. 2019 Mar-Apr;23(2):170-180. doi:10.1016/j.bjpt.2018.11.011Benedetti MG, Furlini G, Zati A, et al.The Effectiveness of Physical Exercise on Bone Density in Osteoporotic Patients.Biomed Res Int.2018 Dec 23;2018:4840531. doi:10.1155/2018/4840531National Institutes of Health, Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center.Bone Health and Osteoperosis.National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.Alcohol and Other Factors Affecting Osteoporosis Risk in Women.Akkawi I, Zmerly H.Osteoporosis: Current Concepts.Joints.2018 Jun 14;6(2):122-127. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1660790
24 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Sözen T, Özışık L, Başaran NÇ.An overview and management of osteoporosis.Eur J Rheumatol.2017 Mar;4(1):46-56. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.048Bone Health and Osteoporosis Foundation.Bone Density Exam/Testing.Diab DL, Watts NB.Bisphosphonates in the treatment of osteoporosis.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2012 Sep;41(3):487-506. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2012.04.007Health Link BC.Osteoporosis: Should I take Bisphosphonate Medicines.Pappa HM, Saslowsky TM, Filip-Dhima R, et al.Efficacy and harms of nasal calcitonin in improving bone density in young patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial.Am J Gastroenterol.2011 Aug;106(8):1527-1543. doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.129Augustine M, Horwitz MJ.Parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related protein analogs as therapies for osteoporosis.Curr Osteoporos Rep.2013 Dec;11(4):400-406. doi:10.1007/s11914-013-0171-2Haas AV, Leboff MS.Osteoanabolic Agents for Osteoporosis.J Endocr Soc.2018;2(8):922-932. doi:10.1210/js.2018-00118National Osteoporosis Foundation.What Woman Need to Know.Gambacciani M, Levancini M.Hormone replacement therapy and the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis.Prz Menopauzalny.2014 Sep;13(4):213-220. doi:10.5114/pm.2014.44996U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).Raloxifene Medication Guide.Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves new treatment for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at high risk of fracture.Mangano KM, Sahni S, Kerstetter JE.Dietary protein is beneficial to bone health under conditions of adequate calcium intake: an update on clinical research.Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care.2014 Jan;17(1):69-74. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000013Kerstetter JE, Bihuniak JD, Brindisi J, et al.The Effect of a Whey Protein Supplement on Bone Mass in Older Caucasian Adults.J Clin Endocrinol Metab.2015 Jun;100(6):2214-2222. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-3792Brzezińska O, Łukasik Z, Makowska J, et al.Role of Vitamin C in Osteoporosis Development and Treatment-A Literature Review.Nutrients.2020 Aug 10;12(8):2394. doi:10.3390/nu12082394Cleveland Clinic.Osteoporosis: Prevention with Calcium Treatment.Lips P, van Schoor NM.The effect of vitamin D on bone and osteoporosis.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab.2011 Aug;25(4):585-591. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2011.05.002Capozzi A, Scambia G, Migliaccio S, et al.Role of vitamin K2 in bone metabolism: a point of view and a short reappraisal of the literature.Gynecol Endocrinol.2020 Apr;36(4):285-288. doi:10.1080/09513590.2019.1689554König D, Oesser S, Scharla S, et al.Specific Collagen Peptides Improve Bone Mineral Density and Bone Markers in Postmenopausal Women-A Randomized Controlled Study.Nutrients.2018 Jan 16;10(1):97. doi:10.3390/nu10010097American Bone Health.Medications That Can Be Bad For Your Bones.Daly RM, Dalla Via J, Duckham RL, et al.Exercise for the prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: an evidence-based guide to the optimal prescription.Braz J Phys Ther. 2019 Mar-Apr;23(2):170-180. doi:10.1016/j.bjpt.2018.11.011Benedetti MG, Furlini G, Zati A, et al.The Effectiveness of Physical Exercise on Bone Density in Osteoporotic Patients.Biomed Res Int.2018 Dec 23;2018:4840531. doi:10.1155/2018/4840531National Institutes of Health, Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center.Bone Health and Osteoperosis.National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.Alcohol and Other Factors Affecting Osteoporosis Risk in Women.Akkawi I, Zmerly H.Osteoporosis: Current Concepts.Joints.2018 Jun 14;6(2):122-127. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1660790
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Sözen T, Özışık L, Başaran NÇ.An overview and management of osteoporosis.Eur J Rheumatol.2017 Mar;4(1):46-56. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.048Bone Health and Osteoporosis Foundation.Bone Density Exam/Testing.Diab DL, Watts NB.Bisphosphonates in the treatment of osteoporosis.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2012 Sep;41(3):487-506. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2012.04.007Health Link BC.Osteoporosis: Should I take Bisphosphonate Medicines.Pappa HM, Saslowsky TM, Filip-Dhima R, et al.Efficacy and harms of nasal calcitonin in improving bone density in young patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial.Am J Gastroenterol.2011 Aug;106(8):1527-1543. doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.129Augustine M, Horwitz MJ.Parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related protein analogs as therapies for osteoporosis.Curr Osteoporos Rep.2013 Dec;11(4):400-406. doi:10.1007/s11914-013-0171-2Haas AV, Leboff MS.Osteoanabolic Agents for Osteoporosis.J Endocr Soc.2018;2(8):922-932. doi:10.1210/js.2018-00118National Osteoporosis Foundation.What Woman Need to Know.Gambacciani M, Levancini M.Hormone replacement therapy and the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis.Prz Menopauzalny.2014 Sep;13(4):213-220. doi:10.5114/pm.2014.44996U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).Raloxifene Medication Guide.Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves new treatment for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at high risk of fracture.Mangano KM, Sahni S, Kerstetter JE.Dietary protein is beneficial to bone health under conditions of adequate calcium intake: an update on clinical research.Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care.2014 Jan;17(1):69-74. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000013Kerstetter JE, Bihuniak JD, Brindisi J, et al.The Effect of a Whey Protein Supplement on Bone Mass in Older Caucasian Adults.J Clin Endocrinol Metab.2015 Jun;100(6):2214-2222. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-3792Brzezińska O, Łukasik Z, Makowska J, et al.Role of Vitamin C in Osteoporosis Development and Treatment-A Literature Review.Nutrients.2020 Aug 10;12(8):2394. doi:10.3390/nu12082394Cleveland Clinic.Osteoporosis: Prevention with Calcium Treatment.Lips P, van Schoor NM.The effect of vitamin D on bone and osteoporosis.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab.2011 Aug;25(4):585-591. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2011.05.002Capozzi A, Scambia G, Migliaccio S, et al.Role of vitamin K2 in bone metabolism: a point of view and a short reappraisal of the literature.Gynecol Endocrinol.2020 Apr;36(4):285-288. doi:10.1080/09513590.2019.1689554König D, Oesser S, Scharla S, et al.Specific Collagen Peptides Improve Bone Mineral Density and Bone Markers in Postmenopausal Women-A Randomized Controlled Study.Nutrients.2018 Jan 16;10(1):97. doi:10.3390/nu10010097American Bone Health.Medications That Can Be Bad For Your Bones.Daly RM, Dalla Via J, Duckham RL, et al.Exercise for the prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: an evidence-based guide to the optimal prescription.Braz J Phys Ther. 2019 Mar-Apr;23(2):170-180. doi:10.1016/j.bjpt.2018.11.011Benedetti MG, Furlini G, Zati A, et al.The Effectiveness of Physical Exercise on Bone Density in Osteoporotic Patients.Biomed Res Int.2018 Dec 23;2018:4840531. doi:10.1155/2018/4840531National Institutes of Health, Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center.Bone Health and Osteoperosis.National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.Alcohol and Other Factors Affecting Osteoporosis Risk in Women.Akkawi I, Zmerly H.Osteoporosis: Current Concepts.Joints.2018 Jun 14;6(2):122-127. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1660790
Sözen T, Özışık L, Başaran NÇ.An overview and management of osteoporosis.Eur J Rheumatol.2017 Mar;4(1):46-56. doi:10.5152/eurjrheum.2016.048
Bone Health and Osteoporosis Foundation.Bone Density Exam/Testing.
Diab DL, Watts NB.Bisphosphonates in the treatment of osteoporosis.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2012 Sep;41(3):487-506. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2012.04.007
Health Link BC.Osteoporosis: Should I take Bisphosphonate Medicines.
Pappa HM, Saslowsky TM, Filip-Dhima R, et al.Efficacy and harms of nasal calcitonin in improving bone density in young patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial.Am J Gastroenterol.2011 Aug;106(8):1527-1543. doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.129
Augustine M, Horwitz MJ.Parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related protein analogs as therapies for osteoporosis.Curr Osteoporos Rep.2013 Dec;11(4):400-406. doi:10.1007/s11914-013-0171-2
Haas AV, Leboff MS.Osteoanabolic Agents for Osteoporosis.J Endocr Soc.2018;2(8):922-932. doi:10.1210/js.2018-00118
National Osteoporosis Foundation.What Woman Need to Know.
Gambacciani M, Levancini M.Hormone replacement therapy and the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis.Prz Menopauzalny.2014 Sep;13(4):213-220. doi:10.5114/pm.2014.44996
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).Raloxifene Medication Guide.
Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves new treatment for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at high risk of fracture.
Mangano KM, Sahni S, Kerstetter JE.Dietary protein is beneficial to bone health under conditions of adequate calcium intake: an update on clinical research.Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care.2014 Jan;17(1):69-74. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000013
Kerstetter JE, Bihuniak JD, Brindisi J, et al.The Effect of a Whey Protein Supplement on Bone Mass in Older Caucasian Adults.J Clin Endocrinol Metab.2015 Jun;100(6):2214-2222. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-3792
Brzezińska O, Łukasik Z, Makowska J, et al.Role of Vitamin C in Osteoporosis Development and Treatment-A Literature Review.Nutrients.2020 Aug 10;12(8):2394. doi:10.3390/nu12082394
Cleveland Clinic.Osteoporosis: Prevention with Calcium Treatment.
Lips P, van Schoor NM.The effect of vitamin D on bone and osteoporosis.Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab.2011 Aug;25(4):585-591. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2011.05.002
Capozzi A, Scambia G, Migliaccio S, et al.Role of vitamin K2 in bone metabolism: a point of view and a short reappraisal of the literature.Gynecol Endocrinol.2020 Apr;36(4):285-288. doi:10.1080/09513590.2019.1689554
König D, Oesser S, Scharla S, et al.Specific Collagen Peptides Improve Bone Mineral Density and Bone Markers in Postmenopausal Women-A Randomized Controlled Study.Nutrients.2018 Jan 16;10(1):97. doi:10.3390/nu10010097
American Bone Health.Medications That Can Be Bad For Your Bones.
Daly RM, Dalla Via J, Duckham RL, et al.Exercise for the prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: an evidence-based guide to the optimal prescription.Braz J Phys Ther. 2019 Mar-Apr;23(2):170-180. doi:10.1016/j.bjpt.2018.11.011
Benedetti MG, Furlini G, Zati A, et al.The Effectiveness of Physical Exercise on Bone Density in Osteoporotic Patients.Biomed Res Int.2018 Dec 23;2018:4840531. doi:10.1155/2018/4840531
National Institutes of Health, Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center.Bone Health and Osteoperosis.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.Alcohol and Other Factors Affecting Osteoporosis Risk in Women.
Akkawi I, Zmerly H.Osteoporosis: Current Concepts.Joints.2018 Jun 14;6(2):122-127. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1660790
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