Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsCommon CausesGenetic Risk FactorsLifestyle Risk FactorsFrequently Asked Questions
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Common Causes
Genetic Risk Factors
Lifestyle Risk Factors
Frequently Asked Questions
Thecolonis the longest part of thelarge intestine. Water and some nutrients are absorbed from food waste as it passes through. When the inner lining of the colon becomes inflamed, it’s known ascolitis.
Many illnesses and injuries can lead to colitis, from an acute (sudden and short-term) infection to a chronic (long-term) disease. Colitis causesabdominal pain, cramping,diarrhea, and other symptoms. For some people, the symptoms come and go. For others, they are constant.
This article explores the common causes, genetics, and lifestyle risk factors that can lead to colitis.
ericsphotography / Getty Images
The invader could be an infection, a disease, or even a medication you are taking. To protect your body from it, your immune system sendswhite blood cellsto the colon. These cells attack your colon’s inner lining, causing it to get inflamed.
Many people with colitis have abnormal immune systems. In other words, even when the invader is gone, their immune systems fail to “turn off.” The result of this is chronic inflammation. But experts still don’t know if colitis should be called anautoimmune disease, or one in which the immune system attacks healthy cellsas ifthey were harmful.
Each of the following are known to cause an inflamed colon. They are some of the most common factors seen in colitis cases.
Infection
Bacteria associated with food poisoning or from contaminated drinking water are common culprits. Examples includecampylobacter,Escherichia coli(E. coli),salmonella,andshigella.
Clostridioides difficile, also known asC. difficile or C. diff,isanother bacterium that can cause colitis. It is normally found in the colon, but it can sometimes grow out of control, at which point it can cause trouble. For many people, this happens after takingantibiotics, which disrupt the colon’s bacterial balance.
C. diffinfectionis highly contagious. It can easily be passed from person to person in hospitals, long-term care centers, and other settings.
Parasites can cause colitis as well. One of the more common parasites isGiardia lamblia. You can contract it from food or water. It can also come from contact with particles of stool of someone who is infected (the fecal-oral route).
Symptoms of Infectious Colitis and How to Treat It
Inflammatory Bowel Disease
There are three main types ofinflammatory bowel disease(IBD):
IBD is becoming more and more common around the world.The signs and symptoms can includebloody diarrhea, pain, weight loss,anemia, and many other problems outside of the digestive tract.
Treatment can include one or more of many classes of medications, including:
Surgeryto remove part or all of the colon is another possible treatment. Surgery is more common in Crohn’s disease than ulcerative colitis.
How IBD Is Treated
Ischemic Colitis
Inischemic colitis, the arteries that send blood to the colon can narrowed. This can happen if the bowel gets twisted and cuts off blood flow. It can also happen when a blood clot blocks an artery.
There are many causes of reduced blood flow to the colon, includinganemia,dehydration,low blood pressure, and shock. The symptoms of ischemic colitis can include bloody stools, fever, and severe pain.
When blood flow is cut off or reduced, colon tissue may begin to die. Hospitalization may be required to correct the problem. In some cases, surgery may be necessary.
Some of the risk factors for ischemic colitis are:
Allergic Colitis
Microscopic Colitis
Microscopic colitisis a type of IBD in which the colon gets inflamed, resulting in chronic, watery diarrhea.
These conditions are far more common in women than in men, but some studies show that lymphocytic colitis may be more common in men than once thought.Microscopic colitis can happen at any age. The average age at which it is diagnosed is between ages 65 to 70.
Treatment depends on how severe the symptoms are and can include:
Medications
Some medications may cause bleeding and/or inflammation in the colon. The most common of these arenonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs), such as Advil (ibuprofen) and aspirin.Long-term use is particularly problematic.
Taking methotrexate, which is used to treat several autoimmune or immune-mediated conditions, may also lead to colitis. Sodium phosphate, which is a type of laxative, can cause colitis in some cases. Certain forms ofchemotherapy(drugs used to treat cancer) can too.
Many common causes of colon inflammation aren’t due to genetic factors. IBD is one form of colitis that does seem to run in families, though.
There is not always a direct parent-to-child link. But first-degree relatives of someone with IBD, such as parents and siblings, are more likely to also have the disease.
Not everyone who has the genes associated with IBD develops the disease. It’s thought that IBD also has environmental risk factors, such as cigarette smoking, air pollution, diet, stress, and more.
It’s important to keep track of any conditions that run in your family and to share this information with your healthcare provider.
The causes of colon inflammation vary, and tie-ins to lifestyle differ based on the condition at play.
Some lifestyle factors known to play a part in colitis include:
Dietary choices do not cause any form of IBD. However, the foods you eat can contribute to the inflammatory processes that underly these diseases. This means that for some people, the foods they eat can trigger or worsen their IBD symptoms.
Food triggers can vary from person to person. Several studies have identified foods that commonly aggravate IBD symptoms, though. They include fruits and vegetables, dairy products, spicy foods, processed foods, and fatty foods.
IBD is a multifactorial disease, meaning that several genetic and environmental factors can and often do contribute to its development. While you cannot change your genes and you can’t always avoid infection, you can avoid some risk factors, such as cigarette smoking.
Summary
Colon inflammation, or colitis, can be acute (short-lived) or chronic (long term). Foodborne illnesses and infections are common causes of acute colitis. Ischemic colitis is a serious acute condition that occurs when blood flow to the colon is blocked.
Chronic forms of colitis include inflammatory bowel disease, allergic colitis, and microscopic colitis. Using medications such as NSAIDs and methotrexate may also result in colon inflammation.
A Word From Verywell
An inflamed colon can cause bloody stools.Blood in or on the stool is never normaland should always be a reason to see a healthcare provider. Seek medical attention right away if you experiencesevere pain, bleeding with clots, persistent heavy diarrhea, or constipation that doesn’t go away.
It may take time to properly diagnose the reason for your colon inflammation because there are so many potential causes. But the sooner you see a healthcare professional, the sooner you can start the proper treatment.
Frequently Asked QuestionsToxic compounds in cigarettes alter the gut biome (gut bacteria) and the immune system response. Smoking is one lifestyle factor that is well-known to contribute to intestinal inflammation. It is also linked to a higher risk of inflammatory bowel disease and Crohn’s disease.Learn MoreNicotine’s Effect on IBDInflammatory bowel disease is associated with an increased risk of colon cancer, and that risk is higher in people who have ulcerative colitis.The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that adults ages 45 to 75 be screened for colorectal cancer regularly.Learn MoreCauses and Risk Factors of Colon CancerDietary choices do not cause IBD, but certain foods can worsen IBD symptoms in people who have a form of the disease. The foods that have this effect vary from person to person. If you know what foods aggravate your symptoms, do your best to avoid them.Learn MoreWhat to Eat If You Have Ulcerative Colitis
Toxic compounds in cigarettes alter the gut biome (gut bacteria) and the immune system response. Smoking is one lifestyle factor that is well-known to contribute to intestinal inflammation. It is also linked to a higher risk of inflammatory bowel disease and Crohn’s disease.Learn MoreNicotine’s Effect on IBD
Toxic compounds in cigarettes alter the gut biome (gut bacteria) and the immune system response. Smoking is one lifestyle factor that is well-known to contribute to intestinal inflammation. It is also linked to a higher risk of inflammatory bowel disease and Crohn’s disease.
Learn MoreNicotine’s Effect on IBD
Inflammatory bowel disease is associated with an increased risk of colon cancer, and that risk is higher in people who have ulcerative colitis.The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that adults ages 45 to 75 be screened for colorectal cancer regularly.Learn MoreCauses and Risk Factors of Colon Cancer
Inflammatory bowel disease is associated with an increased risk of colon cancer, and that risk is higher in people who have ulcerative colitis.The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that adults ages 45 to 75 be screened for colorectal cancer regularly.
Learn MoreCauses and Risk Factors of Colon Cancer
Dietary choices do not cause IBD, but certain foods can worsen IBD symptoms in people who have a form of the disease. The foods that have this effect vary from person to person. If you know what foods aggravate your symptoms, do your best to avoid them.Learn MoreWhat to Eat If You Have Ulcerative Colitis
Dietary choices do not cause IBD, but certain foods can worsen IBD symptoms in people who have a form of the disease. The foods that have this effect vary from person to person. If you know what foods aggravate your symptoms, do your best to avoid them.
Learn MoreWhat to Eat If You Have Ulcerative Colitis
28 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ungaro R, Colombel JF, Lissoos T, Peyrin-Biroulet L.A treat-to-target update in ulcerative colitis: A systematic review.Am J Gastroenterol. 2019 Jun;114(6):874-883. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000183Cedars Sinai.Ulcerative colitis.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Foodsafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.C. diff.Bassetti M, Villa G, Pecori D, Arzese A, Wilcox M.Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment ofClostridium difficileinfection.Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther.2012 Jan;10(12):1405-1423. doi:10.1586/eri.12.135.Fekete E, Allain T, Siddiq A, Sosnowski O, Buret AG.Giardia spp. and the gut microbiota: Dangerous liaisons.Front Microbiol. 2021 Jan;11(1):1-18. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.618106.Venkateswaran N, Weismiller S, Clarke K.Indeterminate colitis - update on treatment options.J Inflamm Res. 2021 Nov;14(1):6383-6395. doi:10.2147/JIR.S268262M’Koma AE.Inflammatory bowel disease: an expanding global health problem.Clin Med Insights Gastroenterol. 2013 Aug;6(1):33-47. doi:10.4137/CGast.S12731Tripathi K, Feuerstein JD.New developments in ulcerative colitis: latest evidence on management, treatment, and maintenance.Drugs Context. 2019 Apr;8(1):1-11. doi:10.7573/dic.212572Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.Hung A, Calderbank T, Samaan MA, Plumb AA, Webster G.Ischaemic colitis: practical challenges and evidence-based recommendations for management.Frontline Gastroenterol. 2019 Dec;12(1):44-52. doi:10.1136/flgastro-2019-101204Washington C, Carmichael JC.Management of ischemic colitis.Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2012;25(4):228-235. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1329534.Molnár K, Pintér P, Győrffy H, et al.Characteristics of allergic colitis in breast-fed infants in the absence of cow’s milk allergy.World J Gastroenterol. 2013 Jun;19(24):3824-3830. doi:10.3748/wjg.v19.i24.3824Czerwionka-Szaflarska M, Łoś-Rycharska E, Gawryjołek J.Allergic enteritis in children.Prz Gastroenterol. 2017;12(1):1-5. doi:10.5114/pg.2017.65677.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Collagenous and lymphocytic colitis.Ingle SB, Adgaonkar BD, Ingle CR.Microscopic colitis: Common cause of unexplained nonbloody diarrhea.World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol. 2014;5(1):48-53. doi:10.4291/wjgp.v5.i1.48National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Definition & facts of microscopic colitis.Storr MA.Microscopic colitis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and current management-an updated 2013.Inter Scholar Res Not. 2013 Apr;2013(1):1-12. doi:10.1155/2013/352718Mokhtare M, Valizadeh SM, Emadian O.Lower gastrointestinal bleeding due to non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug-induced colopathy case report and literature review.Middle East J Dig Dis. 2013 Apr;5(2):107-111.Marginean EC.The ever-changing landscape of drug-induced injury of the lower gastrointestinal tract.Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2016;140(8):748-758. doi:10.5858/arpa.2015-0451-RA.Henström M, D’Amato M.Genetics of irritable bowel syndrome.Mol Cell Pediatr. 2016 Feb;3(1):7. doi:10.1186/s40348-016-0038-6Abegunde AT, Muhammad BH, Bhatti O, Ali T.Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel diseases: Evidence based literature review.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jul;22(27):6296-6317. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i27.6296Dutta AK, Chacko A.Influence of environmental factors on the onset and course of inflammatory bowel disease.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jan;22(3):1088-1100. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i3.1088Morton H, Pedley K, Stewart R, Coad J.Inflammatory bowel disease: Are symptoms and diet linked?.Nutrients. 2020 Oct;12(10):2975. doi:10.3390/nu12102975Papoutsopoulou S, Satsangi J, Campbell B, Probert C.Review article: impact of cigarette smoking on intestinal inflammation—direct and indirect mechanisms.AP&T. 2020 May;51(12):1268-1285. doi:10.1111/apt.15774de Campo S, Farinelli E, Baima JP, et al.Risk factors for ulcerative colitis-associated colorectal cancer: A retrospective cohort study.Medicine. 2020 Aug;99(32):1-6. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000021686Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Screening for colorectal cancer.University Hospitals.Inflammatory bowel disease diet.
28 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ungaro R, Colombel JF, Lissoos T, Peyrin-Biroulet L.A treat-to-target update in ulcerative colitis: A systematic review.Am J Gastroenterol. 2019 Jun;114(6):874-883. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000183Cedars Sinai.Ulcerative colitis.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Foodsafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.C. diff.Bassetti M, Villa G, Pecori D, Arzese A, Wilcox M.Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment ofClostridium difficileinfection.Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther.2012 Jan;10(12):1405-1423. doi:10.1586/eri.12.135.Fekete E, Allain T, Siddiq A, Sosnowski O, Buret AG.Giardia spp. and the gut microbiota: Dangerous liaisons.Front Microbiol. 2021 Jan;11(1):1-18. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.618106.Venkateswaran N, Weismiller S, Clarke K.Indeterminate colitis - update on treatment options.J Inflamm Res. 2021 Nov;14(1):6383-6395. doi:10.2147/JIR.S268262M’Koma AE.Inflammatory bowel disease: an expanding global health problem.Clin Med Insights Gastroenterol. 2013 Aug;6(1):33-47. doi:10.4137/CGast.S12731Tripathi K, Feuerstein JD.New developments in ulcerative colitis: latest evidence on management, treatment, and maintenance.Drugs Context. 2019 Apr;8(1):1-11. doi:10.7573/dic.212572Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.Hung A, Calderbank T, Samaan MA, Plumb AA, Webster G.Ischaemic colitis: practical challenges and evidence-based recommendations for management.Frontline Gastroenterol. 2019 Dec;12(1):44-52. doi:10.1136/flgastro-2019-101204Washington C, Carmichael JC.Management of ischemic colitis.Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2012;25(4):228-235. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1329534.Molnár K, Pintér P, Győrffy H, et al.Characteristics of allergic colitis in breast-fed infants in the absence of cow’s milk allergy.World J Gastroenterol. 2013 Jun;19(24):3824-3830. doi:10.3748/wjg.v19.i24.3824Czerwionka-Szaflarska M, Łoś-Rycharska E, Gawryjołek J.Allergic enteritis in children.Prz Gastroenterol. 2017;12(1):1-5. doi:10.5114/pg.2017.65677.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Collagenous and lymphocytic colitis.Ingle SB, Adgaonkar BD, Ingle CR.Microscopic colitis: Common cause of unexplained nonbloody diarrhea.World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol. 2014;5(1):48-53. doi:10.4291/wjgp.v5.i1.48National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Definition & facts of microscopic colitis.Storr MA.Microscopic colitis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and current management-an updated 2013.Inter Scholar Res Not. 2013 Apr;2013(1):1-12. doi:10.1155/2013/352718Mokhtare M, Valizadeh SM, Emadian O.Lower gastrointestinal bleeding due to non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug-induced colopathy case report and literature review.Middle East J Dig Dis. 2013 Apr;5(2):107-111.Marginean EC.The ever-changing landscape of drug-induced injury of the lower gastrointestinal tract.Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2016;140(8):748-758. doi:10.5858/arpa.2015-0451-RA.Henström M, D’Amato M.Genetics of irritable bowel syndrome.Mol Cell Pediatr. 2016 Feb;3(1):7. doi:10.1186/s40348-016-0038-6Abegunde AT, Muhammad BH, Bhatti O, Ali T.Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel diseases: Evidence based literature review.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jul;22(27):6296-6317. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i27.6296Dutta AK, Chacko A.Influence of environmental factors on the onset and course of inflammatory bowel disease.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jan;22(3):1088-1100. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i3.1088Morton H, Pedley K, Stewart R, Coad J.Inflammatory bowel disease: Are symptoms and diet linked?.Nutrients. 2020 Oct;12(10):2975. doi:10.3390/nu12102975Papoutsopoulou S, Satsangi J, Campbell B, Probert C.Review article: impact of cigarette smoking on intestinal inflammation—direct and indirect mechanisms.AP&T. 2020 May;51(12):1268-1285. doi:10.1111/apt.15774de Campo S, Farinelli E, Baima JP, et al.Risk factors for ulcerative colitis-associated colorectal cancer: A retrospective cohort study.Medicine. 2020 Aug;99(32):1-6. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000021686Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Screening for colorectal cancer.University Hospitals.Inflammatory bowel disease diet.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Ungaro R, Colombel JF, Lissoos T, Peyrin-Biroulet L.A treat-to-target update in ulcerative colitis: A systematic review.Am J Gastroenterol. 2019 Jun;114(6):874-883. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000183Cedars Sinai.Ulcerative colitis.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Foodsafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.C. diff.Bassetti M, Villa G, Pecori D, Arzese A, Wilcox M.Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment ofClostridium difficileinfection.Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther.2012 Jan;10(12):1405-1423. doi:10.1586/eri.12.135.Fekete E, Allain T, Siddiq A, Sosnowski O, Buret AG.Giardia spp. and the gut microbiota: Dangerous liaisons.Front Microbiol. 2021 Jan;11(1):1-18. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.618106.Venkateswaran N, Weismiller S, Clarke K.Indeterminate colitis - update on treatment options.J Inflamm Res. 2021 Nov;14(1):6383-6395. doi:10.2147/JIR.S268262M’Koma AE.Inflammatory bowel disease: an expanding global health problem.Clin Med Insights Gastroenterol. 2013 Aug;6(1):33-47. doi:10.4137/CGast.S12731Tripathi K, Feuerstein JD.New developments in ulcerative colitis: latest evidence on management, treatment, and maintenance.Drugs Context. 2019 Apr;8(1):1-11. doi:10.7573/dic.212572Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.Hung A, Calderbank T, Samaan MA, Plumb AA, Webster G.Ischaemic colitis: practical challenges and evidence-based recommendations for management.Frontline Gastroenterol. 2019 Dec;12(1):44-52. doi:10.1136/flgastro-2019-101204Washington C, Carmichael JC.Management of ischemic colitis.Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2012;25(4):228-235. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1329534.Molnár K, Pintér P, Győrffy H, et al.Characteristics of allergic colitis in breast-fed infants in the absence of cow’s milk allergy.World J Gastroenterol. 2013 Jun;19(24):3824-3830. doi:10.3748/wjg.v19.i24.3824Czerwionka-Szaflarska M, Łoś-Rycharska E, Gawryjołek J.Allergic enteritis in children.Prz Gastroenterol. 2017;12(1):1-5. doi:10.5114/pg.2017.65677.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Collagenous and lymphocytic colitis.Ingle SB, Adgaonkar BD, Ingle CR.Microscopic colitis: Common cause of unexplained nonbloody diarrhea.World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol. 2014;5(1):48-53. doi:10.4291/wjgp.v5.i1.48National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Definition & facts of microscopic colitis.Storr MA.Microscopic colitis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and current management-an updated 2013.Inter Scholar Res Not. 2013 Apr;2013(1):1-12. doi:10.1155/2013/352718Mokhtare M, Valizadeh SM, Emadian O.Lower gastrointestinal bleeding due to non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug-induced colopathy case report and literature review.Middle East J Dig Dis. 2013 Apr;5(2):107-111.Marginean EC.The ever-changing landscape of drug-induced injury of the lower gastrointestinal tract.Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2016;140(8):748-758. doi:10.5858/arpa.2015-0451-RA.Henström M, D’Amato M.Genetics of irritable bowel syndrome.Mol Cell Pediatr. 2016 Feb;3(1):7. doi:10.1186/s40348-016-0038-6Abegunde AT, Muhammad BH, Bhatti O, Ali T.Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel diseases: Evidence based literature review.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jul;22(27):6296-6317. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i27.6296Dutta AK, Chacko A.Influence of environmental factors on the onset and course of inflammatory bowel disease.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jan;22(3):1088-1100. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i3.1088Morton H, Pedley K, Stewart R, Coad J.Inflammatory bowel disease: Are symptoms and diet linked?.Nutrients. 2020 Oct;12(10):2975. doi:10.3390/nu12102975Papoutsopoulou S, Satsangi J, Campbell B, Probert C.Review article: impact of cigarette smoking on intestinal inflammation—direct and indirect mechanisms.AP&T. 2020 May;51(12):1268-1285. doi:10.1111/apt.15774de Campo S, Farinelli E, Baima JP, et al.Risk factors for ulcerative colitis-associated colorectal cancer: A retrospective cohort study.Medicine. 2020 Aug;99(32):1-6. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000021686Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Screening for colorectal cancer.University Hospitals.Inflammatory bowel disease diet.
Ungaro R, Colombel JF, Lissoos T, Peyrin-Biroulet L.A treat-to-target update in ulcerative colitis: A systematic review.Am J Gastroenterol. 2019 Jun;114(6):874-883. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000183
Cedars Sinai.Ulcerative colitis.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Foodsafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.C. diff.
Bassetti M, Villa G, Pecori D, Arzese A, Wilcox M.Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment ofClostridium difficileinfection.Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther.2012 Jan;10(12):1405-1423. doi:10.1586/eri.12.135.
Fekete E, Allain T, Siddiq A, Sosnowski O, Buret AG.Giardia spp. and the gut microbiota: Dangerous liaisons.Front Microbiol. 2021 Jan;11(1):1-18. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.618106.
Venkateswaran N, Weismiller S, Clarke K.Indeterminate colitis - update on treatment options.J Inflamm Res. 2021 Nov;14(1):6383-6395. doi:10.2147/JIR.S268262
M’Koma AE.Inflammatory bowel disease: an expanding global health problem.Clin Med Insights Gastroenterol. 2013 Aug;6(1):33-47. doi:10.4137/CGast.S12731
Tripathi K, Feuerstein JD.New developments in ulcerative colitis: latest evidence on management, treatment, and maintenance.Drugs Context. 2019 Apr;8(1):1-11. doi:10.7573/dic.212572
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.
Hung A, Calderbank T, Samaan MA, Plumb AA, Webster G.Ischaemic colitis: practical challenges and evidence-based recommendations for management.Frontline Gastroenterol. 2019 Dec;12(1):44-52. doi:10.1136/flgastro-2019-101204
Washington C, Carmichael JC.Management of ischemic colitis.Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2012;25(4):228-235. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1329534.
Molnár K, Pintér P, Győrffy H, et al.Characteristics of allergic colitis in breast-fed infants in the absence of cow’s milk allergy.World J Gastroenterol. 2013 Jun;19(24):3824-3830. doi:10.3748/wjg.v19.i24.3824
Czerwionka-Szaflarska M, Łoś-Rycharska E, Gawryjołek J.Allergic enteritis in children.Prz Gastroenterol. 2017;12(1):1-5. doi:10.5114/pg.2017.65677.
Johns Hopkins Medicine.Collagenous and lymphocytic colitis.
Ingle SB, Adgaonkar BD, Ingle CR.Microscopic colitis: Common cause of unexplained nonbloody diarrhea.World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol. 2014;5(1):48-53. doi:10.4291/wjgp.v5.i1.48
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Definition & facts of microscopic colitis.
Storr MA.Microscopic colitis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and current management-an updated 2013.Inter Scholar Res Not. 2013 Apr;2013(1):1-12. doi:10.1155/2013/352718
Mokhtare M, Valizadeh SM, Emadian O.Lower gastrointestinal bleeding due to non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug-induced colopathy case report and literature review.Middle East J Dig Dis. 2013 Apr;5(2):107-111.
Marginean EC.The ever-changing landscape of drug-induced injury of the lower gastrointestinal tract.Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2016;140(8):748-758. doi:10.5858/arpa.2015-0451-RA.
Henström M, D’Amato M.Genetics of irritable bowel syndrome.Mol Cell Pediatr. 2016 Feb;3(1):7. doi:10.1186/s40348-016-0038-6
Abegunde AT, Muhammad BH, Bhatti O, Ali T.Environmental risk factors for inflammatory bowel diseases: Evidence based literature review.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jul;22(27):6296-6317. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i27.6296
Dutta AK, Chacko A.Influence of environmental factors on the onset and course of inflammatory bowel disease.World J Gastroenterol. 2016 Jan;22(3):1088-1100. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i3.1088
Morton H, Pedley K, Stewart R, Coad J.Inflammatory bowel disease: Are symptoms and diet linked?.Nutrients. 2020 Oct;12(10):2975. doi:10.3390/nu12102975
Papoutsopoulou S, Satsangi J, Campbell B, Probert C.Review article: impact of cigarette smoking on intestinal inflammation—direct and indirect mechanisms.AP&T. 2020 May;51(12):1268-1285. doi:10.1111/apt.15774
de Campo S, Farinelli E, Baima JP, et al.Risk factors for ulcerative colitis-associated colorectal cancer: A retrospective cohort study.Medicine. 2020 Aug;99(32):1-6. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000021686
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Screening for colorectal cancer.
University Hospitals.Inflammatory bowel disease diet.
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