Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsMusculoskeletal CausesInfectious CausesLung DiseasesHeart DiseaseGastrointestinal CausesAnxiety Attacks
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Musculoskeletal Causes
Infectious Causes
Lung Diseases
Heart Disease
Gastrointestinal Causes
Anxiety Attacks
Chest tightness can be a sign of many things, both harmless and severe. While your first thought may be that you are having aheart attack, chest tightness is associated with many other medical conditions, such as:
The article describes the different causes of chest tightness, including their symptoms and treatment options. It also explains when chest tightness is a sign of a medical emergency.
Verywell / Laura Porter
Musculoskeletal Causes of Chest Tightness
About half of all people who see a healthcare provider for chest pain are diagnosed with a musculoskeletal) condition. Several can cause chest pain and tightness.
Muscle Strain
Muscle straincan cause chest tightness. If you’ve pulled a muscle—particularly in your chest, abdomen, or upper to middle back—you may experience chest tightness and pain when you’re active. In some cases, the strain may be severe enough to cause pain when you breathe.
For chest muscle strains that cause pain and tightness, the first line of treatment usually involves theRICE method:
You may also want to take over-the-counter (OTC) painkillers likeAdvil (ibuprofen)andAleve (naproxen)which are classified asnon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
See a healthcare provider if you have severe pain, inflammation, or bruising from a chest injury, or if symptoms don’t get better within two weeks.
Rib Fracture
Tightness in the chest can be a sign of a broken rib. Arib fractureis a common injury that occurs when one or more bones in your rib cage crack or break. Rib fractures can cause severe chest pain that sometimes makes your chest feel tight.
Rest is important when nursing a rib fracture. Your healthcare provider may also suggest ice application and elevation (and reclining to sleep). Compression is avoided as it has been shown to increase the risk ofpneumonia.
Most rib fractures heal on their own in about six weeks. The primary treatment is pain control, such as with NSAIDs or prescription opioid painkillers like Vicodin (hydrocodone/acetaminophen) orOxyContin (oxycodone).
Be sure you don’t overdo it while healing. Always get medical care for a fracture and follow your healthcare provider’s advice.
Chest Pain: When Symptoms Are and Aren’t Heart-Related
Costochondritis
Chest tightness can be a symptom ofcostochondritis, which is inflammation of the cartilage in the rib cage. It causes chest pain and sometimes chest tightness, often in the middle and upper rib areas. The pain may get worse if you breathe deeply, move, or stretch.
Causes of costochondritis include:
Treatment generally includes:
If your chest hurts more when you lie flat, you may want to prop yourself up on extra pillows or sleep in a recliner.
See your healthcare provider if your costochondritis doesn’t improve with home treatment.
Infectious Causes of Chest Tightness
Acute Bronchitis
To treat acute bronchitis:
Antibiotics are ineffective againstviruses. However, there are antivirals that may help in cases of flu.
When to Seek Medical Care
Pneumonia
Symptoms of pneumonia include:
The chest pain of pneumonia may be sharp and get worse with deep breaths or coughing.
Symptom management consists of:
When to Call 911Call 911 if you have signs of severe pneumonia, including:Difficulty breathingPersistent chest pain or pressureBluish lips and fingertipsA high feverSevere cough with mucus
When to Call 911
Call 911 if you have signs of severe pneumonia, including:Difficulty breathingPersistent chest pain or pressureBluish lips and fingertipsA high feverSevere cough with mucus
Call 911 if you have signs of severe pneumonia, including:
Pneumonia can be life-threatening, especially in children two and under, adults over 65, people with a weak immune system, and people in poor health.
COVID-19
Tightness in the chest can also be a symptom of COVID-19. You might also have other symptoms, such as:
Most people with COVID-19 have mild illness and can recover at home. You can treat symptoms with:
The sooner you start treatment, the more effective it will be. However, chest tightness may linger in some people with a COVID-19 diagnosis. One study found that COVID chest pain lasts up to two months in 22% of people treated for COVID-19.
When to Call 911Get emergency treatment for COVID-19 if you have:Trouble breathingPersistent chest pain or pressureConfusionDifficulty waking up or staying awakeBluish skin, lips, or nails
Get emergency treatment for COVID-19 if you have:Trouble breathingPersistent chest pain or pressureConfusionDifficulty waking up or staying awakeBluish skin, lips, or nails
Get emergency treatment for COVID-19 if you have:
Shingles
Shingles symptoms include:
Your healthcare provider may give you antiviral medications and tell you to take NSAIDs or Tylenol to help with shingles pain. Antibiotic creams for the skin are often prescribed to prevent secondary bacterial infection.
When to Seek Urgent CareGet urgent medical help if you have shingles blisters on your face, especially near your eyes. This can lead to serious complications, such as blindness, facial paralysis, or encephalitis (brain inflammation).
When to Seek Urgent Care
Get urgent medical help if you have shingles blisters on your face, especially near your eyes. This can lead to serious complications, such as blindness, facial paralysis, or encephalitis (brain inflammation).
Lung Conditions That Cause Chest Tightness
Tightness in the chest can be a sign of a problem with the lungs.Asthmaandchronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD) may immediately come to mind when you think of lung conditions that may cause chest tightness, but there are others—some of which require urgent medical attention.
Asthma
Tightness in the chest is common in people with asthma. If you haveasthma, exposure to lung irritants or allergens can cause your airways to constrict and narrow. This leads to:
Asthma treatmentscome in two types: immediate rescue treatment for asthma attacks and long-term control medications that prevent attacks. Both types of treatment are usually given via inhalers. Some prescription medications are also available.
A big part of asthma treatment is avoiding the things that set it off. Your healthcare provider can help you identify triggers and work with you on an asthma action plan.
When to Call 911Call 911 or go to the nearest emergency room if an asthma attack is severe, causing:Rapid breathing (30 or more breaths per minute)Blueish lips or nailsFlaring nostrils when you inhaleRetraction of the skin between the rib as you inhaleA feeling that you cannot get enough air
Call 911 or go to the nearest emergency room if an asthma attack is severe, causing:Rapid breathing (30 or more breaths per minute)Blueish lips or nailsFlaring nostrils when you inhaleRetraction of the skin between the rib as you inhaleA feeling that you cannot get enough air
Call 911 or go to the nearest emergency room if an asthma attack is severe, causing:
Does Asthma Cause Congestion?
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Chest tightness can happen if you haveCOPD. Shortness of breath from constricted airways is the main symptom, but you may feel chest tightness or like something is wrapped around your chest—even while at rest.You could also have a cough and a lot of mucus.
COPD is often treated with:
When to Call 911Seek emergency care if you experience a severe COPD exacerbation (flare-up) with symptoms such as:Chest painBreathing or talking difficultyFeverRacing heartbeatBlue lips or nailsSlurred speechConfusion or disorientationDizzinessDifficulty waking up
Seek emergency care if you experience a severe COPD exacerbation (flare-up) with symptoms such as:Chest painBreathing or talking difficultyFeverRacing heartbeatBlue lips or nailsSlurred speechConfusion or disorientationDizzinessDifficulty waking up
Seek emergency care if you experience a severe COPD exacerbation (flare-up) with symptoms such as:
Why COPD Causes Chest Tightness
Pulmonary Hypertension
Symptoms of PH include:
Pulmonary hypertension can’t be cured, but medications can help manage it. They include:
Pleuritis
Symptoms of pleuritis include:
You should make an appointment with a healthcare provider if you have symptoms that could be from pleuritis, especially if you have a condition that could cause it.
When to Call 911Call 911 or seek emergency care if you have symptoms of severe pleurisy, including:Severe chest painCoughing up bloodNauseaExcessive sweating
Call 911 or seek emergency care if you have symptoms of severe pleurisy, including:Severe chest painCoughing up bloodNauseaExcessive sweating
Call 911 or seek emergency care if you have symptoms of severe pleurisy, including:
Alcohol, Antibiotics, and Healing: What Happens?
Pneumothorax
Tightness in the chest can have serious, even life-threatening, causes.Pneumothorax (collapsed lung)occurs when a hole in the lung allows air to escape and fill the space between the lung and chest wall. The trapped air puts pressure on the lung, so it cannot expand as it should when you take a breath. This can cause:
A minor collapsed lung can resolve on its own in a few weeks. In larger collapses, the air needs to be removed. A healthcare provider can place a chest tube between your ribs to drain the air and let the lung expand properly.
Other treatments include oxygen therapy and surgery to prevent a future collapse.
Pulmonary Embolism
Not everyone has symptoms of pulmonary embolism. Those who do may experience:
Risk factors for pulmonary embolism include:
This condition requires immediate medical attention.
Treatments include:
Symptoms of DVT include:
Heart Conditions That Cause Chest Tightness
Tightness in your chest might make you think you have a heart problem, and it’s true that it can be a sign of something wrong in your cardiovascular system.
Coronary Artery Disease
Narrowed arteries can cause:
Risk factors for CAD include a family history of heart disease (especially before age 50), excess body weight, an unhealthy high-fat diet, and smoking.
If you have CAD, your healthcare provider may prescribe drugs that:
Surgery may be an option for more serious cases of coronary artery disease. They include:
How Coronary Artery Disease Is Treated
Mitral Valve Prolapse
Tightness in the chest can occur if there’s a problem with the heart valves. Inmitral valve prolapse (MVP), the valves between the left atrium and left ventricle of your heart develop a bulge (prolapse). That means they can’t close correctly and blood can flow backward through the valves.
MVP can cause aheart murmur(a “swooshing” sound when listening to the heartbeat) and a number of other symptoms, including:
MVP’s cause is unknown, but it may have a genetic component. Other conditions may contribute to its development, including:
MVP isn’t usually serious and may not require treatment. If it does, treatment may include:
Even if you don’t need treatment, your healthcare provider should monitor the condition.
What Is Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation?
Pericarditis
Feeling tightness in your chest can be a sign of inflammation.Pericarditisis inflammation of the protective membrane surrounding the heart (pericardium). This thin tissue allows the heart to change in size with each heartbeat.
When inflamed, the membrane can rub against the heart and cause:
Pericarditis is most common in men between the ages of 20 and 50. The cause is often unknown, but it may be linked to:
Mild pericarditis may clear up on its own. More serious cases require treatment, especially if it becomes potentially life-threatening. Treatments for pericarditis include:
For cases with severe fluid buildup, healthcare providers may perform a procedure to drain the excess fluid.
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Tightness in your chest could be a sign that you have a heart condition. For example,hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM)involves abnormally thick walls of the left ventricle, one of the heart’s four chambers. The thickness makes it harder for the heart to pump blood. This is believed to be due to abnormal genes affecting the heart muscle.
HCM can be obstructive (blocking or reducing the flow of blood) or nonobstructive. Most people have the obstructive type.
Symptoms of HCM often get worse with exertion. They may include:
HCM is generally treated with medications and medical procedures. Treatments may include:
A heart-healthy lifestyle is recommended for managing HCM as well.
Coronary Artery Tear
Tightness in your chest can be a medical emergency that requires immediate medical attention. For example, chest tightness can be a sign of a rare condition calledspontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD), which happens when there is a sudden tearing of a blood vessel in the heart.
When the artery wall tears, blood can get trapped between the layers of the wall and cause a bulge that restricts or blocks the flow of blood. That can cause a heart attack.
The causes of SCAD are unknown. It happens most often in biological females who:
When SCAD happens in biological males, it’s usually after extreme exertion, such as a chest that feels tight when you run. About 80% of SCAD cases are in people who are young, healthy, and active. For that reason, it’s important for everyone to know the signs of a heart attack:
When to Call 911Call 911 or get to an emergency room right away if you have signs of a heart attack, including:Chest pain or tightness, usually in the center orleft side of the chestChest pain that lasts for more than a few minutes, or goes away and comes backPain that radiates to the jaw, neck, back, arm, or shoulderWeakness, lightheadedness, or faintingShortness of breath
Call 911 or get to an emergency room right away if you have signs of a heart attack, including:Chest pain or tightness, usually in the center orleft side of the chestChest pain that lasts for more than a few minutes, or goes away and comes backPain that radiates to the jaw, neck, back, arm, or shoulderWeakness, lightheadedness, or faintingShortness of breath
Call 911 or get to an emergency room right away if you have signs of a heart attack, including:
If you have SCAD once, you’re at high risk of having it again. It’s important to adopt a heart-healthy lifestyle and see a cardiovascular specialist for regular monitoring.
Gastrointestinal Causes of Chest Tightness
Some gastrointestinal issues can cause tightness in the chest and pain in the chest area. The pain is felt near the heart but actually comes from digestive organs in that area, including the stomach and esophagus.
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
A tight feeling in your chest could be a sign of acid reflux.Gastroesophagealreflux disease(GERD) involves chronicacid reflux, which is when stomach acid pushes back up into youresophagus(the tube that runs from your throat to your stomach).
GERD symptoms include:
GERD is treatedwith over-the-counter (OTC) or prescription medications such as:
Lifestyle changes are also recommended for GERD, including:
Somesurgeriesmay help, but due to a greater risk of complications than medications, they’re usually reserved for when symptoms don’t improve with medications and lifestyle changes.
The 7 Best Antacids
Hiatal Hernia
Not everyhiatal herniacauses symptoms. When they do, symptoms may include:
If you don’t have symptoms, your hiatal hernia doesn’t need to be treated. For symptomatic cases, treatments include:
If all else fails, surgery to fix the hernia may be an option.
Peptic Ulcer Disease
Those acids are naturally present and don’t usually cause damage. Something has to change in order for the acid to become a problem. The mechanism is different depending on the cause:
The primary symptom of peptic ulcer disease is burning pain in the stomach, which can sometimes feel like chest tightness and pain.
Other symptoms may include:
Gallstones
A tight feeling in your chest could be a sign ofgallstones, which are like pebbles that form in yourgallbladder. The gallbladder releasesbileto help with digestion, but gallstones can block the ducts it travels through. That makes bile build up and causes a gallbladder attack.
Gallbladder attacks can include pain in your upper right abdomen after eating, which may feel like chest tightness in some cases. The pain can be severe and may last for several hours. Attacks are more common after heavy meals, which makes them most likely in the hours after you eat dinner.
If your gallstones don’t cause symptoms, they may not need treatment. However, if you’ve had one gallbladder attack, you’re likely to have more, so let your healthcare provider know about it.
The most common treatment for gallstones is removing the gallbladder. This surgery is called acholecystectomy. If your health makes surgery too risky for you, your provider may suggest:
When to Seek Medical CareSeek immediate medical care for a gallbladder attack that causes:Upper abdominal pain lasting for several hoursNausea and vomitingFever or chillsJaundice(yellowing of the skin or eyes)Cola-colored urinePale stools
Seek immediate medical care for a gallbladder attack that causes:Upper abdominal pain lasting for several hoursNausea and vomitingFever or chillsJaundice(yellowing of the skin or eyes)Cola-colored urinePale stools
Seek immediate medical care for a gallbladder attack that causes:
Esophageal Disorders
A tightness in your chest might actually be related to a problem in your throat. Some esophageal disorders can cause chest tightness and pain, including:
The causes of these conditions aren’t yet fully understood, but they appear to be more common in people who:
Esophageal disorders may be treated with:
As a last resort, surgery may be recommended for some conditions.
Tightness in the chest can also be related to your mental health. When you feelanxious, it can trigger a stress response in the body known as fight-or-flight mode. Symptoms of an anxiety attack include:
Treatments for chest tightness due to anxiety include:
Your healthcare provider may also suggest anti-anxiety medications, mental health counseling, or relaxing activities such as yoga or tai chi.
Summary
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55 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Haasenritter J, Biroga T, Keunecke C, et al.Causes of chest pain in primary care–a systematic review and meta-analysis.Croat Med J. 2015;56(5):422-430. doi:10.3325/cmj.2015.56.422American Heart Association.High insurance deductibles may stop people from seeking emergency care for chest pain.MedlinePlus.Sprains and strains.May L, Hillerma C, Patil S.Rib fracture management.BJA Education.2016;16:1. doi:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkv011MedlinePlus.Costochondritis.National Health Service.Costochondritis.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chest cold (acute bronchitis) basics.Food and Drug Administration.FDA clarifies results of recent advisory committee meeting on oral phenylephrine.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Be antibiotics aware: Smart use, best care.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About pneumonia.American Lung Association.Pneumonia symptoms and diagnosis.American Lung Association.Pneumonia treatment and recovery.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.COVID-19 symptoms.Pavli A, Theodoridou M, Maltezou HC.Post-COVID Syndrome: Incidence, Clinical Spectrum, and Challenges for Primary Healthcare Professionals.Arch Med Res. 2021 Aug;52(6):575-581. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2021.03.010.National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging.Shingles.Cohen KR, Salbu RL, Frank J, Israel I.Presentation and management of herpes zoster (shingles) in the geriatric population.P T. 2013;38(4):217-227.Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America.Asthma medicines and treatment.American Lung Association.When to see your doctor.Miravitlles M, Ribera A.Understanding the impact of symptoms on the burden of COPD.Respir Res. 2017;18(1):67. doi:10.1186/s12931-017-0548-3MedlinePlus.COPD.Chong J, Leung B, Poole P.Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;9(9):CD002309. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002309.pub5American College of Emergency Physicians.Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).University of Pennsylvania.Pulmonary hypertension.Pulmonary Hypertension Association.Treatments.American Academy of Family Physicians.Pleurisy (pleuritis).Reamy BV, Williams PM, Odom MR.Pleuritic chest pain: Sorting through the differential diagnosis.Am Fam Physician. 2017 Sep 1;96(5):306-312. PMID: 28925655.National Health Service: NHS inform.Pleurisy.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Pneumothorax.National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Pulmonary embolism.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Pulmonary embolism.National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.Deep vein thrombosis.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About coronary artery disease (CAD).National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.Coronary heart disease: Treatment.American Heart Association.What’s mitral valve prolapse?MedlinePlus.Pericarditis.American Heart Association.Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).MedlinePlus.Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.American Heart Association.Coronary artery dissection: Not just a heart attack.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About heart attack symptoms, risk, and recovery.Yip A, Saw J.Spontaneous coronary artery dissection-A review.Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2015;5(1):37-48. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2223-3652.2015.01.08National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Definition & facts for GER & GERD.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of GER & GERD.National Institute for Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Treatment for GER & GERD.National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Proton pump inhibitors.MedlinePlus.Hiatal hernia.MedlinePlus.Peptic ulcer.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of peptic ulcers (stomach ulcers).American College of Gastroenterology.Peptic ulcer disease.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Gallstones.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of gallstones.National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Treatment for gallstones.Coss-Adame E, Rao SS.A review of esophageal chest pain.Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y). 2015;11(11):759-766.National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Theophylline.American Psychological Association.Stress effects on the body.Zaccaro A, Piarulli A, Laurino M, et al.How breath-control can change your life: A systematic review on psycho-physiological correlates of slow breathing.Front Hum Neurosci. 2018;12:353. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Haasenritter J, Biroga T, Keunecke C, et al.Causes of chest pain in primary care–a systematic review and meta-analysis.Croat Med J. 2015;56(5):422-430. doi:10.3325/cmj.2015.56.422American Heart Association.High insurance deductibles may stop people from seeking emergency care for chest pain.MedlinePlus.Sprains and strains.May L, Hillerma C, Patil S.Rib fracture management.BJA Education.2016;16:1. doi:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkv011MedlinePlus.Costochondritis.National Health Service.Costochondritis.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chest cold (acute bronchitis) basics.Food and Drug Administration.FDA clarifies results of recent advisory committee meeting on oral phenylephrine.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Be antibiotics aware: Smart use, best care.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About pneumonia.American Lung Association.Pneumonia symptoms and diagnosis.American Lung Association.Pneumonia treatment and recovery.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.COVID-19 symptoms.Pavli A, Theodoridou M, Maltezou HC.Post-COVID Syndrome: Incidence, Clinical Spectrum, and Challenges for Primary Healthcare Professionals.Arch Med Res. 2021 Aug;52(6):575-581. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2021.03.010.National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging.Shingles.Cohen KR, Salbu RL, Frank J, Israel I.Presentation and management of herpes zoster (shingles) in the geriatric population.P T. 2013;38(4):217-227.Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America.Asthma medicines and treatment.American Lung Association.When to see your doctor.Miravitlles M, Ribera A.Understanding the impact of symptoms on the burden of COPD.Respir Res. 2017;18(1):67. doi:10.1186/s12931-017-0548-3MedlinePlus.COPD.Chong J, Leung B, Poole P.Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;9(9):CD002309. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002309.pub5American College of Emergency Physicians.Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).University of Pennsylvania.Pulmonary hypertension.Pulmonary Hypertension Association.Treatments.American Academy of Family Physicians.Pleurisy (pleuritis).Reamy BV, Williams PM, Odom MR.Pleuritic chest pain: Sorting through the differential diagnosis.Am Fam Physician. 2017 Sep 1;96(5):306-312. PMID: 28925655.National Health Service: NHS inform.Pleurisy.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Pneumothorax.National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Pulmonary embolism.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Pulmonary embolism.National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.Deep vein thrombosis.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About coronary artery disease (CAD).National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.Coronary heart disease: Treatment.American Heart Association.What’s mitral valve prolapse?MedlinePlus.Pericarditis.American Heart Association.Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).MedlinePlus.Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.American Heart Association.Coronary artery dissection: Not just a heart attack.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About heart attack symptoms, risk, and recovery.Yip A, Saw J.Spontaneous coronary artery dissection-A review.Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2015;5(1):37-48. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2223-3652.2015.01.08National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Definition & facts for GER & GERD.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of GER & GERD.National Institute for Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Treatment for GER & GERD.National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Proton pump inhibitors.MedlinePlus.Hiatal hernia.MedlinePlus.Peptic ulcer.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of peptic ulcers (stomach ulcers).American College of Gastroenterology.Peptic ulcer disease.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Gallstones.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of gallstones.National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Treatment for gallstones.Coss-Adame E, Rao SS.A review of esophageal chest pain.Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y). 2015;11(11):759-766.National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Theophylline.American Psychological Association.Stress effects on the body.Zaccaro A, Piarulli A, Laurino M, et al.How breath-control can change your life: A systematic review on psycho-physiological correlates of slow breathing.Front Hum Neurosci. 2018;12:353. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353
Haasenritter J, Biroga T, Keunecke C, et al.Causes of chest pain in primary care–a systematic review and meta-analysis.Croat Med J. 2015;56(5):422-430. doi:10.3325/cmj.2015.56.422
American Heart Association.High insurance deductibles may stop people from seeking emergency care for chest pain.
MedlinePlus.Sprains and strains.
May L, Hillerma C, Patil S.Rib fracture management.BJA Education.2016;16:1. doi:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkv011
MedlinePlus.Costochondritis.
National Health Service.Costochondritis.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chest cold (acute bronchitis) basics.
Food and Drug Administration.FDA clarifies results of recent advisory committee meeting on oral phenylephrine.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Be antibiotics aware: Smart use, best care.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About pneumonia.
American Lung Association.Pneumonia symptoms and diagnosis.
American Lung Association.Pneumonia treatment and recovery.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.COVID-19 symptoms.
Pavli A, Theodoridou M, Maltezou HC.Post-COVID Syndrome: Incidence, Clinical Spectrum, and Challenges for Primary Healthcare Professionals.Arch Med Res. 2021 Aug;52(6):575-581. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2021.03.010.
National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging.Shingles.
Cohen KR, Salbu RL, Frank J, Israel I.Presentation and management of herpes zoster (shingles) in the geriatric population.P T. 2013;38(4):217-227.
Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America.Asthma medicines and treatment.
American Lung Association.When to see your doctor.
Miravitlles M, Ribera A.Understanding the impact of symptoms on the burden of COPD.Respir Res. 2017;18(1):67. doi:10.1186/s12931-017-0548-3
MedlinePlus.COPD.
Chong J, Leung B, Poole P.Phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;9(9):CD002309. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002309.pub5
American College of Emergency Physicians.Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
University of Pennsylvania.Pulmonary hypertension.
Pulmonary Hypertension Association.Treatments.
American Academy of Family Physicians.Pleurisy (pleuritis).
Reamy BV, Williams PM, Odom MR.Pleuritic chest pain: Sorting through the differential diagnosis.Am Fam Physician. 2017 Sep 1;96(5):306-312. PMID: 28925655.
National Health Service: NHS inform.Pleurisy.
Johns Hopkins Medicine.Pneumothorax.
National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Pulmonary embolism.
Johns Hopkins Medicine.Pulmonary embolism.
National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.Deep vein thrombosis.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About coronary artery disease (CAD).
National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.Coronary heart disease: Treatment.
American Heart Association.What’s mitral valve prolapse?
MedlinePlus.Pericarditis.
American Heart Association.Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM).
MedlinePlus.Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.
American Heart Association.Coronary artery dissection: Not just a heart attack.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About heart attack symptoms, risk, and recovery.
Yip A, Saw J.Spontaneous coronary artery dissection-A review.Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2015;5(1):37-48. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2223-3652.2015.01.08
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Definition & facts for GER & GERD.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of GER & GERD.
National Institute for Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Treatment for GER & GERD.
National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Proton pump inhibitors.
MedlinePlus.Hiatal hernia.
MedlinePlus.Peptic ulcer.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of peptic ulcers (stomach ulcers).
American College of Gastroenterology.Peptic ulcer disease.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Gallstones.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Symptoms & causes of gallstones.
National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Treatment for gallstones.
Coss-Adame E, Rao SS.A review of esophageal chest pain.Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y). 2015;11(11):759-766.
National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Theophylline.
American Psychological Association.Stress effects on the body.
Zaccaro A, Piarulli A, Laurino M, et al.How breath-control can change your life: A systematic review on psycho-physiological correlates of slow breathing.Front Hum Neurosci. 2018;12:353. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353
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