Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsHow They Are LinkedRisk FactorsTreatmentPreventionFAQs
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
How They Are Linked
Risk Factors
Treatment
Prevention
FAQs
Diabetesandchronic kidney disease (CKD)are common conditions affecting 11%and 14%of adults in the United States, respectively. Although each can occur on its own, they can also occur together ascomorbid(coexisting) conditions.
On the one hand, diabetes can give rise to CKD due to the long-term damage it can inflict on blood vessels throughout the body, including those of thekidneys.
On the other, there is increasing evidence that CKD can cause diabetes due to the buildup of waste from the malfunctioning kidneys, which, in turn, affects insulin production.How the body produces or responds to insulin (a hormone that allows cells to take in sugar for energy) is key to the development of diabetes.
This article takes a closer look at the connection between diabetes and chronic kidney disease, including how one increases the risk of the other. It also explores treatment options and things you can do to prevent this all-too-common comorbidity.
DefinitionsFor the purposes of this article, “male” refers to people born with penises and “females” refers to people born with vaginas irrespective of whichgender or gendersthey identify with or if they identify withno gender at all.
Definitions
For the purposes of this article, “male” refers to people born with penises and “females” refers to people born with vaginas irrespective of whichgender or gendersthey identify with or if they identify withno gender at all.
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Connection Between Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease
Both diabetes and CKD arechronic illnesses, meaning that they are persistent and typically progressive. Over time, they can cause damage to multiple organs, leading to such comorbid conditions ashypertension(high blood pressure),hyperlipidemia(high cholesterol), andcardiovascular (heart) disease.
Diabetes and CKD can also give rise to each other, particularly when the diseases are advanced or poorly controlled.
How Diabetes Causes CKD
Diabetes is a group of diseases that causes high blood sugar (glucose). When blood sugar levels are high—referred to ashyperglycemia—they reduce levels of a chemical in the blood called nitric oxide.
The persistent depletion of nitric oxide, which the body uses to regulate blood pressure, can cause vessels to lose their elasticity and narrow over time. This causes hypertension, a common condition in people with diabetes.
When this occurs in the kidneys, millions of tiny filtering units callednephronscan be irreversibly damaged. This prevents the kidneys from filtering waste out of your blood, leading to CKD.
Current StatisticsOne in three adults with diabetes has CKD, according to the Centers for Disease Prevention (CDC). Every 24 hours in the United States, 170 adults with diabetes begin treatment forkidney failure.Kidney failure, in which the kidney can no longer remove waste or excess fluid from the blood, tends to occur 20–30 years after the onset of diabetes.
Current Statistics
One in three adults with diabetes has CKD, according to the Centers for Disease Prevention (CDC). Every 24 hours in the United States, 170 adults with diabetes begin treatment forkidney failure.Kidney failure, in which the kidney can no longer remove waste or excess fluid from the blood, tends to occur 20–30 years after the onset of diabetes.
Complications of Untreated Diabetes
How CKD Causes Diabetes
Recent research suggests that people with non-diabetic kidney disease run an increased risk of type 2 diabetes due to the buildup of a waste product called urea in the blood.
Insulin is the hormone tasked with regulating blood sugar in the body, and the depletion of this hormone can contribute to the onset of diabetes in people with CKD.
It is unclear if high blood urea can do this on its own or simply increases the risk in those alreadyvulnerable to type 2 diabetes. Either way, the link between non-diabetic kidney disease and diabetes remains exceptionally high.
Diabetes and Non-Diabetic Kidney DiseaseA 2020 study in theClinical Kidney Journalreported that among 832 adults living with type 2 diabetes, nearly half (49.6%) had non-diabetic kidney disease.
Diabetes and Non-Diabetic Kidney Disease
A 2020 study in theClinical Kidney Journalreported that among 832 adults living with type 2 diabetes, nearly half (49.6%) had non-diabetic kidney disease.
Risk Factors for Diabetes and Kidney Disease
Risks
The association between diabetes and chronic kidney disease is well established. Even so, having diabetes doesn’t automatically mean that you will get CKD, and having CKD doesn’t automatically mean you will get diabetes. With that said, the risk of comorbidity increases if the diseases are poorly controlled.
Other risk factors can contribute to the onset of CKD in people with diabetes, some of which are modifiable (meaning you can change them) and others which are not.
Common risk factors for diabetic kidney disease include:
Complications of Diabetic Kidney DiseaseType 2 diabetes is the leading cause ofend-stage kidney disease, for whichdialysisorkidney transplantare the only treatment options.Diabetic kidney disease is also linked to an increased risk of death overall, particularly from heart disease.
Complications of Diabetic Kidney Disease
Type 2 diabetes is the leading cause ofend-stage kidney disease, for whichdialysisorkidney transplantare the only treatment options.Diabetic kidney disease is also linked to an increased risk of death overall, particularly from heart disease.
The link between non-diabetic kidney disease and type 2 diabetes is far less clear. In some cases, they may develop independently of each other. Even so, there are certain factors that can speed the progression of CKD and potentially contribute to the onset of diabetes.
Common modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for CKD progression include:
Racial Disparities and CKD ProgressionLatinx and Black people in the United States experience up to a twofold increased risk of CKD progression compared to White people.Though genetics play a part (as seen with the APOL1 gene, which increases the risk of CKD progression in Black people),higher poverty rates and poorer access to healthcare limit their ability to manage CKD effectively and avoid progression.
Racial Disparities and CKD Progression
Latinx and Black people in the United States experience up to a twofold increased risk of CKD progression compared to White people.Though genetics play a part (as seen with the APOL1 gene, which increases the risk of CKD progression in Black people),higher poverty rates and poorer access to healthcare limit their ability to manage CKD effectively and avoid progression.
How Long Can You Live With Chronic Kidney Disease?
Treatment and Management of Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease
Although there is no cure for either diabetes or chronic kidney disease, both can be managed with lifestyle changes and medications to slow their progression and prevent long-term complications.
Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
How Type 2 Diabetes Is Treated
Chronic Kidney Disease
How Chronic Kidney Disease Is Treated
That said, there are effectiveways to reduce your risk of CKDand diabetes, many of which overlap.
Lose excess weight.
Be more physically active.
Avoid sugary and highly processed foods.
Stop smoking.
Manage your diabetes.
Manage your blood pressure.
Summary
Eating a healthy diet, avoiding sugary foods, exercising regularly, and maintaining an ideal weight can go a long way toward preventing diabetes and CKD, individually and together.
A Word From Verywell
One of the challenges of diabetes and chronic kidney disease is that both can be “silent” until the diseases are advanced and cause serious symptoms. This is especially true with CKD, in which two of every five people with severe kidney disease are unaware of their condition.
To this end, it is important to recognize theearly signs of diabetes(including frequent urination, fatigue, increased thirst, blurred vision, tingling hands or feet, slowed healing, and unintended weight loss) and theearly signs of kidney disease(including decreased urination, nausea, fatigue, loss of appetite, foamy urine, and ammonia-smelling breath),
The earlier you are diagnosed and treated, the better able you will be to slow disease progression and avoid potentially serious complications.
Frequently Asked Questions
Symptoms of diabetic kidney disease, also known as diabetic nephropathy or diabetic renal disease, include:Foamy urinePersistent itchinessSwelling of feet, ankles, hands, or faceIncreased need to urinateLoss of appetiteShortness of breathExtreme fatigueNausea or vomitingConfusion or difficulty concentratingReduced need for insulin or diabetes medicationsLearn MoreHow to Prevent Complications of Diabetes
Symptoms of diabetic kidney disease, also known as diabetic nephropathy or diabetic renal disease, include:Foamy urinePersistent itchinessSwelling of feet, ankles, hands, or faceIncreased need to urinateLoss of appetiteShortness of breathExtreme fatigueNausea or vomitingConfusion or difficulty concentratingReduced need for insulin or diabetes medications
Symptoms of diabetic kidney disease, also known as diabetic nephropathy or diabetic renal disease, include:
Learn MoreHow to Prevent Complications of Diabetes
Learn MoreHow Acute and Chronic Kidney Disease Differ
Diabetic kidney disease generally takes 20 years or more to develop, with symptoms typically appearing during adulthood.Even so, studies suggest that in children with type 1 diabetes—the autoimmune form of diabetes—kidney impairment may start as early as 18 months following the onset of the disease (though symptoms may not be apparent for years).Learn MoreHow Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Differ
Diabetic kidney disease generally takes 20 years or more to develop, with symptoms typically appearing during adulthood.Even so, studies suggest that in children with type 1 diabetes—the autoimmune form of diabetes—kidney impairment may start as early as 18 months following the onset of the disease (though symptoms may not be apparent for years).
Learn MoreHow Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Differ
24 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methods for the national diabetes statistics report.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease in the United States, 2023.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease.Koppe L, Nyam E, Vivot K, et al.Urea impairs β cell glycolysis and insulin secretion in chronic kidney disease.J Clin Investigation.2016;126(9):3598-612. doi:10.1172/JCI86181Suresh V, Reddy A.Dysregulation of nitric oxide synthases during early and late pathophysiological conditions of diabetes mellitus leads to amassing of microvascular impediment.J Diabetes Metab Disord.2021;20(1):989–1002. doi:10.1007/s40200-021-00799-yMitchell GF.Arterial stiffness and hypertension: chicken or egg?Hypertension. 2014;64(2):210–214. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03449Wu N, Shen H, Liu H, et al.Acute blood glucose fluctuation enhances rat aorta endothelial cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in vivo.Cardiovasc Diabetol.2016;15:109. doi:10.1186/s12933-016-0427-0Samsu N.Diabetic nephropathy: challenges in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.Biomed Res Int. 2021;2021:1497449. doi:10.1155/2021/1497449Dart AB, Sellers EA, Dean HJ.Kidney disease and youth onset type 2 diabetes: considerations for the general practitioner.Int J Pediatr.2012;2012:237360. doi:10.1155/2012/237360National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What is chronic kidney disease?Bermejo S, Gonzalez E, López-Revuelta K, et al.Risk factors for non-diabetic renal disease in diabetic patients.Clin Kidney J.2020;13(3):380-388. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfz177Tziomalos K, Athyros VG.Diabetic nephropathy: new risk factors and improvements in diagnosis.Rev Diabet Stud.2015;12(1-2):110–118 doi:10.1900/RDS.2015.12.110Mora-Fernández C, Domínguez-Pimentel V, de Fuentes MM, et al.Diabetic kidney disease: from physiology to therapeutics.J Physiol. 2014;592(18):3997–4012. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.272328Hannah M, Ansari S, Meza N, et al.Risk factors for CKD progression.CJASN.2021 Apr;16(4):648-59. doi:10.2215/CJN.07830520Reidy KJ, Hjorten R, Parekh RS.Genetic risk of APOL1 and kidney disease in children and young adults of African ancestry.Curr Opin Pediatr.2018 Apr;30(2):252–9. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000603Uusitupa M, Schwab U.Evolving nutritional therapy for diabetes mellitus.Nutrients.2020;12(2):423. doi:10.3390/nu12020423American Diabetes Association.Weekly exercise targets - the magic number: 150.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Insulin, medicines, & other diabetes treatments.Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes.KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease.MedlinePlus.Type 1 diabetes.Zhang Y, Luk AOY, Chow E, et al.High risk of conversion to diabetes in first-degree relatives of individuals with young-onset type 2 diabetes: a 12-year follow-up analysis.Diabet Med. 2017;34(12):170-9. doi:10.1111/dme.13516National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What Is chronic kidney disease?Gomes Amorim R, da Silva Guedes G, Lima Vaconcelos SM, de Faria Santao JC.Kidney disease in diabetes mellitus: cross-linking between hyperglycemia, redox imbalance and inflammation.Arq Bras Cardiol. 2019;112(5):577–587. doi:10.5935/abc.20190077Afkarian M.Diabetic kidney disease in children and adolescents.Pediatr Nephrol.2015 Jan;30(1):65–74. doi:10.1007/s00467-014-2796-5Additional ReadingCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.Risk factors for chronic kidney disease.MedlinePlus.How to prevent diabetes.
24 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methods for the national diabetes statistics report.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease in the United States, 2023.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease.Koppe L, Nyam E, Vivot K, et al.Urea impairs β cell glycolysis and insulin secretion in chronic kidney disease.J Clin Investigation.2016;126(9):3598-612. doi:10.1172/JCI86181Suresh V, Reddy A.Dysregulation of nitric oxide synthases during early and late pathophysiological conditions of diabetes mellitus leads to amassing of microvascular impediment.J Diabetes Metab Disord.2021;20(1):989–1002. doi:10.1007/s40200-021-00799-yMitchell GF.Arterial stiffness and hypertension: chicken or egg?Hypertension. 2014;64(2):210–214. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03449Wu N, Shen H, Liu H, et al.Acute blood glucose fluctuation enhances rat aorta endothelial cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in vivo.Cardiovasc Diabetol.2016;15:109. doi:10.1186/s12933-016-0427-0Samsu N.Diabetic nephropathy: challenges in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.Biomed Res Int. 2021;2021:1497449. doi:10.1155/2021/1497449Dart AB, Sellers EA, Dean HJ.Kidney disease and youth onset type 2 diabetes: considerations for the general practitioner.Int J Pediatr.2012;2012:237360. doi:10.1155/2012/237360National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What is chronic kidney disease?Bermejo S, Gonzalez E, López-Revuelta K, et al.Risk factors for non-diabetic renal disease in diabetic patients.Clin Kidney J.2020;13(3):380-388. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfz177Tziomalos K, Athyros VG.Diabetic nephropathy: new risk factors and improvements in diagnosis.Rev Diabet Stud.2015;12(1-2):110–118 doi:10.1900/RDS.2015.12.110Mora-Fernández C, Domínguez-Pimentel V, de Fuentes MM, et al.Diabetic kidney disease: from physiology to therapeutics.J Physiol. 2014;592(18):3997–4012. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.272328Hannah M, Ansari S, Meza N, et al.Risk factors for CKD progression.CJASN.2021 Apr;16(4):648-59. doi:10.2215/CJN.07830520Reidy KJ, Hjorten R, Parekh RS.Genetic risk of APOL1 and kidney disease in children and young adults of African ancestry.Curr Opin Pediatr.2018 Apr;30(2):252–9. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000603Uusitupa M, Schwab U.Evolving nutritional therapy for diabetes mellitus.Nutrients.2020;12(2):423. doi:10.3390/nu12020423American Diabetes Association.Weekly exercise targets - the magic number: 150.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Insulin, medicines, & other diabetes treatments.Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes.KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease.MedlinePlus.Type 1 diabetes.Zhang Y, Luk AOY, Chow E, et al.High risk of conversion to diabetes in first-degree relatives of individuals with young-onset type 2 diabetes: a 12-year follow-up analysis.Diabet Med. 2017;34(12):170-9. doi:10.1111/dme.13516National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What Is chronic kidney disease?Gomes Amorim R, da Silva Guedes G, Lima Vaconcelos SM, de Faria Santao JC.Kidney disease in diabetes mellitus: cross-linking between hyperglycemia, redox imbalance and inflammation.Arq Bras Cardiol. 2019;112(5):577–587. doi:10.5935/abc.20190077Afkarian M.Diabetic kidney disease in children and adolescents.Pediatr Nephrol.2015 Jan;30(1):65–74. doi:10.1007/s00467-014-2796-5Additional ReadingCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.Risk factors for chronic kidney disease.MedlinePlus.How to prevent diabetes.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methods for the national diabetes statistics report.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease in the United States, 2023.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease.Koppe L, Nyam E, Vivot K, et al.Urea impairs β cell glycolysis and insulin secretion in chronic kidney disease.J Clin Investigation.2016;126(9):3598-612. doi:10.1172/JCI86181Suresh V, Reddy A.Dysregulation of nitric oxide synthases during early and late pathophysiological conditions of diabetes mellitus leads to amassing of microvascular impediment.J Diabetes Metab Disord.2021;20(1):989–1002. doi:10.1007/s40200-021-00799-yMitchell GF.Arterial stiffness and hypertension: chicken or egg?Hypertension. 2014;64(2):210–214. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03449Wu N, Shen H, Liu H, et al.Acute blood glucose fluctuation enhances rat aorta endothelial cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in vivo.Cardiovasc Diabetol.2016;15:109. doi:10.1186/s12933-016-0427-0Samsu N.Diabetic nephropathy: challenges in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.Biomed Res Int. 2021;2021:1497449. doi:10.1155/2021/1497449Dart AB, Sellers EA, Dean HJ.Kidney disease and youth onset type 2 diabetes: considerations for the general practitioner.Int J Pediatr.2012;2012:237360. doi:10.1155/2012/237360National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What is chronic kidney disease?Bermejo S, Gonzalez E, López-Revuelta K, et al.Risk factors for non-diabetic renal disease in diabetic patients.Clin Kidney J.2020;13(3):380-388. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfz177Tziomalos K, Athyros VG.Diabetic nephropathy: new risk factors and improvements in diagnosis.Rev Diabet Stud.2015;12(1-2):110–118 doi:10.1900/RDS.2015.12.110Mora-Fernández C, Domínguez-Pimentel V, de Fuentes MM, et al.Diabetic kidney disease: from physiology to therapeutics.J Physiol. 2014;592(18):3997–4012. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.272328Hannah M, Ansari S, Meza N, et al.Risk factors for CKD progression.CJASN.2021 Apr;16(4):648-59. doi:10.2215/CJN.07830520Reidy KJ, Hjorten R, Parekh RS.Genetic risk of APOL1 and kidney disease in children and young adults of African ancestry.Curr Opin Pediatr.2018 Apr;30(2):252–9. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000603Uusitupa M, Schwab U.Evolving nutritional therapy for diabetes mellitus.Nutrients.2020;12(2):423. doi:10.3390/nu12020423American Diabetes Association.Weekly exercise targets - the magic number: 150.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Insulin, medicines, & other diabetes treatments.Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes.KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease.MedlinePlus.Type 1 diabetes.Zhang Y, Luk AOY, Chow E, et al.High risk of conversion to diabetes in first-degree relatives of individuals with young-onset type 2 diabetes: a 12-year follow-up analysis.Diabet Med. 2017;34(12):170-9. doi:10.1111/dme.13516National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What Is chronic kidney disease?Gomes Amorim R, da Silva Guedes G, Lima Vaconcelos SM, de Faria Santao JC.Kidney disease in diabetes mellitus: cross-linking between hyperglycemia, redox imbalance and inflammation.Arq Bras Cardiol. 2019;112(5):577–587. doi:10.5935/abc.20190077Afkarian M.Diabetic kidney disease in children and adolescents.Pediatr Nephrol.2015 Jan;30(1):65–74. doi:10.1007/s00467-014-2796-5
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methods for the national diabetes statistics report.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease in the United States, 2023.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chronic kidney disease.
Koppe L, Nyam E, Vivot K, et al.Urea impairs β cell glycolysis and insulin secretion in chronic kidney disease.J Clin Investigation.2016;126(9):3598-612. doi:10.1172/JCI86181
Suresh V, Reddy A.Dysregulation of nitric oxide synthases during early and late pathophysiological conditions of diabetes mellitus leads to amassing of microvascular impediment.J Diabetes Metab Disord.2021;20(1):989–1002. doi:10.1007/s40200-021-00799-y
Mitchell GF.Arterial stiffness and hypertension: chicken or egg?Hypertension. 2014;64(2):210–214. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03449
Wu N, Shen H, Liu H, et al.Acute blood glucose fluctuation enhances rat aorta endothelial cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in vivo.Cardiovasc Diabetol.2016;15:109. doi:10.1186/s12933-016-0427-0
Samsu N.Diabetic nephropathy: challenges in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment.Biomed Res Int. 2021;2021:1497449. doi:10.1155/2021/1497449
Dart AB, Sellers EA, Dean HJ.Kidney disease and youth onset type 2 diabetes: considerations for the general practitioner.Int J Pediatr.2012;2012:237360. doi:10.1155/2012/237360
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What is chronic kidney disease?
Bermejo S, Gonzalez E, López-Revuelta K, et al.Risk factors for non-diabetic renal disease in diabetic patients.Clin Kidney J.2020;13(3):380-388. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfz177
Tziomalos K, Athyros VG.Diabetic nephropathy: new risk factors and improvements in diagnosis.Rev Diabet Stud.2015;12(1-2):110–118 doi:10.1900/RDS.2015.12.110
Mora-Fernández C, Domínguez-Pimentel V, de Fuentes MM, et al.Diabetic kidney disease: from physiology to therapeutics.J Physiol. 2014;592(18):3997–4012. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.272328
Hannah M, Ansari S, Meza N, et al.Risk factors for CKD progression.CJASN.2021 Apr;16(4):648-59. doi:10.2215/CJN.07830520
Reidy KJ, Hjorten R, Parekh RS.Genetic risk of APOL1 and kidney disease in children and young adults of African ancestry.Curr Opin Pediatr.2018 Apr;30(2):252–9. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000603
Uusitupa M, Schwab U.Evolving nutritional therapy for diabetes mellitus.Nutrients.2020;12(2):423. doi:10.3390/nu12020423
American Diabetes Association.Weekly exercise targets - the magic number: 150.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Insulin, medicines, & other diabetes treatments.
Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes.KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease.
MedlinePlus.Type 1 diabetes.
Zhang Y, Luk AOY, Chow E, et al.High risk of conversion to diabetes in first-degree relatives of individuals with young-onset type 2 diabetes: a 12-year follow-up analysis.Diabet Med. 2017;34(12):170-9. doi:10.1111/dme.13516
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.What Is chronic kidney disease?
Gomes Amorim R, da Silva Guedes G, Lima Vaconcelos SM, de Faria Santao JC.Kidney disease in diabetes mellitus: cross-linking between hyperglycemia, redox imbalance and inflammation.Arq Bras Cardiol. 2019;112(5):577–587. doi:10.5935/abc.20190077
Afkarian M.Diabetic kidney disease in children and adolescents.Pediatr Nephrol.2015 Jan;30(1):65–74. doi:10.1007/s00467-014-2796-5
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Risk factors for chronic kidney disease.MedlinePlus.How to prevent diabetes.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Risk factors for chronic kidney disease.
MedlinePlus.How to prevent diabetes.
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