Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsSafety of Long-Term Birth Control Pill UseSide Effects of Long-Term Birth Control Pill UsePositive Side Effects of Long-Term Birth Control Pill UseCan Birth Control Pills Affect Fertility?How Long Can You Stay on Birth Control Pills?
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Safety of Long-Term Birth Control Pill Use
Side Effects of Long-Term Birth Control Pill Use
Positive Side Effects of Long-Term Birth Control Pill Use
Can Birth Control Pills Affect Fertility?
How Long Can You Stay on Birth Control Pills?
Long-term side effects of birth control pills can occur, though their use is generally considered safe. Sometimes there may even be protective effects (depending on the pill type) with a reduced risk of developingovarian,endometrial,and colorectal cancers. However, there may be an increased risk ofblood clotsandbreast cancer.
The long-term use of birth control pills can be a concern because many people start usingbirth controlat an early age. About 30% of teens ages 15 to 19 have reported recent use of birth control, with the majority of them taking the pill.Many will continue to use oral contraceptives for years.
This article discusses the long-term use of different oral contraceptives, including specific health conditions in which the pill may play a role. It will help you to better understand the long-term side effects of birth control pills.
Pelucco / Getty Images
Oral contraceptives are generally considered safe for most people to use. In addition to pregnancy prevention, some people use birth control pills in the long term to manage other conditions, includingendometriosisand polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
There are two main types of oral contraceptives, with each presenting different risks.
Combination Oral Contraceptives
Combination oral contraceptives contain both synthetic estrogen (typicallyethinyl estradiol) and progesterone (a progestin). While generally considered safe, the estrogen in combined birth control pills may present a higher risk of complications in certain cases. Their use is avoided in people who:
More than onetype of progestinmay be used in combination birth control pills, and some may be considered safer than others. For example, the widely usedlevonorgestrelhas been associated with the lowest riskofblood clotsof all combination birth control pills.
Increased blood pressure (hypertension) can occur in people taking birth control pills. Although the increase is typically mild, there have been rare cases where a person’s blood pressure rose to dangerously high levels while they were taking birth control.
Progestin-Only Pill
The progestin-only pill, sometimes called theminipill, does not contain estrogen. It also typically contains less progestin than a combination pill, and generally causes fewer side effects.
Progestin-only pills appear to have little effect on the risk of heart attack, stroke, or blood clots. They also don’t appear to be linked to hypertension or high cholesterol.
Birth Control Use StatisticsThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) looks at the rates of birth control use in people who identify as women. The data shows that roughly 65% of women between the ages of 15 and 49 use some form of birth control. The highest usage was found in women ages 40 to 49.
Birth Control Use Statistics
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) looks at the rates of birth control use in people who identify as women. The data shows that roughly 65% of women between the ages of 15 and 49 use some form of birth control. The highest usage was found in women ages 40 to 49.
How Do Birth Control Pills Work?
Blood Clots
People who take birth control pills may be at a higher risk of developing blood clots. Pills with higher doses ofestrogenare considered to raise the risk even more.In some cases, these clots can be life-threatening if they travel through the bloodstream and into the brain, lungs, and heart.
Blood Clots in Lungs: Before and After Pulmonary Embolism
Heart Disease and Stroke
The risk of a heart attack tends to increase with the dosage of estrogen in the pills, and other health conditions (smoking, hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol) can contribute to overall risk.
Cancer
Some studies have shown that people taking birth control are more likely todevelop breast cancerwhen compared with those who don’t use oral contraceptives, with synthetic estrogen the main concern.
Research results on this relationship have been mixed. Newer studies suggest the link between hormonal contraceptive use and breast cancer may actually depend on the tumor subtype, such as an association with aggressivetriple-negative breast cancers.
The risk of developingcervical canceralso appears to be higher among people taking birth control pills.
Causes of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer
Migraines
People who experience migraine headaches should avoid oral contraceptives that contain estrogen. The World Health Organization advises against using pills with estrogen in people ages 35 and older who experience migraines, and in all people who experience migraines with an aura.
On the other hand, combination birth control pills may offer benefits to people who have menstrual migraines.
Menstrual Migraine: Role of Estrogen and Self-Care Tips
Gallbladder Disease
Research suggests that certain hormonal birth control methods may raise the risk of developinggallbladder disease, but oral contraceptives didn’t appear to be among the methods that do so.The progestin inDepo-Proveraand the use of a levonorgestrel intrauterine device (IUD) increased the risk.
However, a type of benign liver tumor that affects people taking oral contraceptives can affect the gallbladder in rare cases.Thesehepatocellular adenomascan progress to cancerous tumors in about 4% of cases. They also can rupture and bleed, so it’s common for people with these benign tumors to avoid oral contraceptives.
All forms of long-term contraception have been proven to be safe and effective, but the IUD tends to have fewer adverse risks and side effects. Discuss your options and goals with your doctor to find the birth control that will match your needs.
Liver Lesions Causes and Treatment
Sex Drive
Some research has suggested that people taking birth control may have a loweredlibido, though the results of several studies have been conflicting.
There are several factors that need to be considered when evaluating a possible link.Stress, fatigue, and domestic abuse are all examples of how a person’s lifestyle and relationship status can impact sex drive. More research is needed on how long-term birth control use may play a role.
The Pill: Pros and Cons
Positive Side Effects of Long-Term Birth Control Pill Use
Depending on the pill, there are cases in which oral contraceptives can have a protective effect when taken in the long term. For example, taking birth control pills may help you to:
Cancer Research and ContraceptivesAdvances in genetic medicine reveal that people with BRCA mutations may benefit from a 50% reduction of ovarian cancer risk with oral contraceptives but their breast cancer risk is higher. More research is needed to fully understand any protective effects of long-term birth control pill use in these groups and others.
Cancer Research and Contraceptives
Advances in genetic medicine reveal that people with BRCA mutations may benefit from a 50% reduction of ovarian cancer risk with oral contraceptives but their breast cancer risk is higher. More research is needed to fully understand any protective effects of long-term birth control pill use in these groups and others.
BRCA2 Gene Mutations and Cancer Risk in Men and Women
Most people who stop taking the pill can expect fertility to return within one year. Studies of more than 11,600 people who stopped using oral contraceptives after at least two years of use found that people who took birth control pills or used an IUD had the highest rates of pregnancy within a year.
When Does Fertility Return After Stopping Birth Control?
There is no set rule about how long you can safely take birth control pills. Factors like your age and overall health will affect your decision.
Talk to your healthcare provider about your birth control pills, and how they may present long-term side effects and risks. You may switch to a different type of pill or dosage over time, or consider a different method altogether.
Summary
Long-term side effects of birth control pills do occur, but using oral contraceptives generally is considered safe and effective for most people. In some cases, pills that contain estrogen can raise the risk of stroke, blood clots, and heart attacks in some people and should be avoided.
For many people, the benefits of using birth control long-term outweigh the risks for reasons beyond pregnancy prevention. Hormonal birth control pills can help to treat conditions like endometriosis, or they may have a protective effect against certain types of cancer.
Speak with your healthcare provider about your current health status and fertility goals to find the birth control method that will be the safest and most effective for you.
How to Get Birth Control
22 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ott M, Sucato G, Braverman P, Adelman W, Alderman E, Breuner C,et al.Contraception for Adolescents.Pediatrics.October 2014; 134 (4): e1257–e1281. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2300Podfigurna A, Meczekalski B, Petraglia F, Luisi S.Clinical, hormonal and metabolic parameters in women with PCOS with different combined oral contraceptives (containing chlormadinone acetate versus drospirenone).J Endocrinol Invest. 2020 Apr;43(4):483-492. doi:10.1007/s40618-019-01133-3.Creinin MD, Westhoff CL, Bouchard C, Chen MJ, Jensen JT, Kaunitz AM,et al.Estetrol-drospirenone combination oral contraceptive: North American phase 3 efficacy and safety results.Contraception. 2021 Sep;104(3):222-228. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2021.05.002.Oedingen C, Scholz S, Razum O.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association of combined oral contraceptives on the risk of venous thromboembolism: the role of the progestogen type and estrogen dose.Thromb Res. 2018;165:68-78. doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2018.03.005Mir D, Ardabilygazir A, Afshariyamchlou S, et al.Malignant Hypertension in Association with Low Estrogen Dose Oral Contraceptives: Case Report and Review of Literature.Cureus.2018 Jul 13;10(7):e2978. doi:10.7759/cureus.2978Horvath S, Schreiber CA, Sonalkar S.Contraception. 2018 Jan 17. In: Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000–. PMID: 25905371.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Current Contraceptive Status Among Women Aged 15-49: United States, 2015-2017.Roach RE, Helmerhorst FM, Lijfering WM, et al.Combined oral contraceptives: the risk of myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.2015 Aug 27;2015(8):CD011054. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011054.pub2Reddy V, Wurtz M, Patel SH, McCarthy M, Raval AP.Oral contraceptives and stroke: Foes or friends.Front Neuroendocrinol. 2022 Oct;67:101016. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101016.Rahhal A, Khir F, Adam M, Aljundi A, Mohsen MK, Al-Suwaidi J.Low dose combined oral contraceptives induced thrombotic anterior wall myocardial infarction: a case report.BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2020 Apr 19;20(1):182. doi:10.1186/s12872-020-01462-9.Satish S, Moore JF, Littlefield JM, Bishop IJ, Rojas KE.Re-Evaluating the Association Between Hormonal Contraception and Breast Cancer Risk.Breast Cancer (Dove Med Press). 2023 Mar 22;15:227-235. doi:10.2147/BCTT.S390664.National Cancer Institute.Oral Contraceptives and Cancer Risk.Serfaty D.Update on the contraceptive contraindications.J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod. 2019 May;48(5):297-307. doi:10.1016/j.jogoh.2019.02.006.Khosrow-Khavar F, Sodhi M, Ganjizadeh-Zavareh S, Etminan M.Association between the use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of cholecystectomy in women of reproductive age.Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2021 Oct;77(10):1523-1529. doi:10.1007/s00228-021-03137-6.Hepkema JT, Poelmann FB, Gouw ASH, de Haas RJ, Duiker EW, Blokzijl H,et al.Malignant Transformation of an HNF1a-Inactivated Hepatocellular Adenoma to Hepatocellular Carcinoma.Case Rep Gastroenterol. 2020 Nov 2;14(3):577-585. doi:10.1159/000510215.de Castro Coelho F, Barros C.The Potential of Hormonal Contraception to Influence Female Sexuality.Int J Reprod Med.2019 Mar 3;2019:9701384. doi:10.1155/2019/9701384Grandi G, Di Vinci P, Sgandurra A, Feliciello L, Monari F, Facchinetti F.Contraception During Perimenopause: Practical Guidance.Int J Womens Health. 2022 Jul 15;14:913-929. doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S288070.Vannuccini S, Clemenza S, Rossi M, Petraglia F.Hormonal treatments for endometriosis: The endocrine background.Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2022 Jun;23(3):333-355. doi:10.1007/s11154-021-09666-w.Doycheva I, Ehrmann DA.Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and obstructive sleep apnea in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2022 May;117(5):897-911. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.03.020.Steinberg Weiss M, Roe AH, Allison KC, Dodson WC, Kris-Etherton PM, Kunselman AR,et al.Lifestyle modifications alone or combined with hormonal contraceptives improve sexual dysfunction in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2021 Feb;115(2):474-482. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.08.1396.Kotsopoulos J.Oral Contraceptives and BRCA Cancer: A Balancing Act.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2022 Apr 11;114(4):483-484. doi:10.1093/jnci/djac006.Girum T, Wasie A.Return of fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Contracept Reprod Med. 2018 Jul 23;3:9. doi:10.1186/s40834-018-0064-y.
22 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ott M, Sucato G, Braverman P, Adelman W, Alderman E, Breuner C,et al.Contraception for Adolescents.Pediatrics.October 2014; 134 (4): e1257–e1281. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2300Podfigurna A, Meczekalski B, Petraglia F, Luisi S.Clinical, hormonal and metabolic parameters in women with PCOS with different combined oral contraceptives (containing chlormadinone acetate versus drospirenone).J Endocrinol Invest. 2020 Apr;43(4):483-492. doi:10.1007/s40618-019-01133-3.Creinin MD, Westhoff CL, Bouchard C, Chen MJ, Jensen JT, Kaunitz AM,et al.Estetrol-drospirenone combination oral contraceptive: North American phase 3 efficacy and safety results.Contraception. 2021 Sep;104(3):222-228. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2021.05.002.Oedingen C, Scholz S, Razum O.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association of combined oral contraceptives on the risk of venous thromboembolism: the role of the progestogen type and estrogen dose.Thromb Res. 2018;165:68-78. doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2018.03.005Mir D, Ardabilygazir A, Afshariyamchlou S, et al.Malignant Hypertension in Association with Low Estrogen Dose Oral Contraceptives: Case Report and Review of Literature.Cureus.2018 Jul 13;10(7):e2978. doi:10.7759/cureus.2978Horvath S, Schreiber CA, Sonalkar S.Contraception. 2018 Jan 17. In: Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000–. PMID: 25905371.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Current Contraceptive Status Among Women Aged 15-49: United States, 2015-2017.Roach RE, Helmerhorst FM, Lijfering WM, et al.Combined oral contraceptives: the risk of myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.2015 Aug 27;2015(8):CD011054. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011054.pub2Reddy V, Wurtz M, Patel SH, McCarthy M, Raval AP.Oral contraceptives and stroke: Foes or friends.Front Neuroendocrinol. 2022 Oct;67:101016. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101016.Rahhal A, Khir F, Adam M, Aljundi A, Mohsen MK, Al-Suwaidi J.Low dose combined oral contraceptives induced thrombotic anterior wall myocardial infarction: a case report.BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2020 Apr 19;20(1):182. doi:10.1186/s12872-020-01462-9.Satish S, Moore JF, Littlefield JM, Bishop IJ, Rojas KE.Re-Evaluating the Association Between Hormonal Contraception and Breast Cancer Risk.Breast Cancer (Dove Med Press). 2023 Mar 22;15:227-235. doi:10.2147/BCTT.S390664.National Cancer Institute.Oral Contraceptives and Cancer Risk.Serfaty D.Update on the contraceptive contraindications.J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod. 2019 May;48(5):297-307. doi:10.1016/j.jogoh.2019.02.006.Khosrow-Khavar F, Sodhi M, Ganjizadeh-Zavareh S, Etminan M.Association between the use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of cholecystectomy in women of reproductive age.Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2021 Oct;77(10):1523-1529. doi:10.1007/s00228-021-03137-6.Hepkema JT, Poelmann FB, Gouw ASH, de Haas RJ, Duiker EW, Blokzijl H,et al.Malignant Transformation of an HNF1a-Inactivated Hepatocellular Adenoma to Hepatocellular Carcinoma.Case Rep Gastroenterol. 2020 Nov 2;14(3):577-585. doi:10.1159/000510215.de Castro Coelho F, Barros C.The Potential of Hormonal Contraception to Influence Female Sexuality.Int J Reprod Med.2019 Mar 3;2019:9701384. doi:10.1155/2019/9701384Grandi G, Di Vinci P, Sgandurra A, Feliciello L, Monari F, Facchinetti F.Contraception During Perimenopause: Practical Guidance.Int J Womens Health. 2022 Jul 15;14:913-929. doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S288070.Vannuccini S, Clemenza S, Rossi M, Petraglia F.Hormonal treatments for endometriosis: The endocrine background.Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2022 Jun;23(3):333-355. doi:10.1007/s11154-021-09666-w.Doycheva I, Ehrmann DA.Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and obstructive sleep apnea in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2022 May;117(5):897-911. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.03.020.Steinberg Weiss M, Roe AH, Allison KC, Dodson WC, Kris-Etherton PM, Kunselman AR,et al.Lifestyle modifications alone or combined with hormonal contraceptives improve sexual dysfunction in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2021 Feb;115(2):474-482. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.08.1396.Kotsopoulos J.Oral Contraceptives and BRCA Cancer: A Balancing Act.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2022 Apr 11;114(4):483-484. doi:10.1093/jnci/djac006.Girum T, Wasie A.Return of fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Contracept Reprod Med. 2018 Jul 23;3:9. doi:10.1186/s40834-018-0064-y.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Ott M, Sucato G, Braverman P, Adelman W, Alderman E, Breuner C,et al.Contraception for Adolescents.Pediatrics.October 2014; 134 (4): e1257–e1281. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2300Podfigurna A, Meczekalski B, Petraglia F, Luisi S.Clinical, hormonal and metabolic parameters in women with PCOS with different combined oral contraceptives (containing chlormadinone acetate versus drospirenone).J Endocrinol Invest. 2020 Apr;43(4):483-492. doi:10.1007/s40618-019-01133-3.Creinin MD, Westhoff CL, Bouchard C, Chen MJ, Jensen JT, Kaunitz AM,et al.Estetrol-drospirenone combination oral contraceptive: North American phase 3 efficacy and safety results.Contraception. 2021 Sep;104(3):222-228. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2021.05.002.Oedingen C, Scholz S, Razum O.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association of combined oral contraceptives on the risk of venous thromboembolism: the role of the progestogen type and estrogen dose.Thromb Res. 2018;165:68-78. doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2018.03.005Mir D, Ardabilygazir A, Afshariyamchlou S, et al.Malignant Hypertension in Association with Low Estrogen Dose Oral Contraceptives: Case Report and Review of Literature.Cureus.2018 Jul 13;10(7):e2978. doi:10.7759/cureus.2978Horvath S, Schreiber CA, Sonalkar S.Contraception. 2018 Jan 17. In: Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000–. PMID: 25905371.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Current Contraceptive Status Among Women Aged 15-49: United States, 2015-2017.Roach RE, Helmerhorst FM, Lijfering WM, et al.Combined oral contraceptives: the risk of myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.2015 Aug 27;2015(8):CD011054. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011054.pub2Reddy V, Wurtz M, Patel SH, McCarthy M, Raval AP.Oral contraceptives and stroke: Foes or friends.Front Neuroendocrinol. 2022 Oct;67:101016. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101016.Rahhal A, Khir F, Adam M, Aljundi A, Mohsen MK, Al-Suwaidi J.Low dose combined oral contraceptives induced thrombotic anterior wall myocardial infarction: a case report.BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2020 Apr 19;20(1):182. doi:10.1186/s12872-020-01462-9.Satish S, Moore JF, Littlefield JM, Bishop IJ, Rojas KE.Re-Evaluating the Association Between Hormonal Contraception and Breast Cancer Risk.Breast Cancer (Dove Med Press). 2023 Mar 22;15:227-235. doi:10.2147/BCTT.S390664.National Cancer Institute.Oral Contraceptives and Cancer Risk.Serfaty D.Update on the contraceptive contraindications.J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod. 2019 May;48(5):297-307. doi:10.1016/j.jogoh.2019.02.006.Khosrow-Khavar F, Sodhi M, Ganjizadeh-Zavareh S, Etminan M.Association between the use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of cholecystectomy in women of reproductive age.Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2021 Oct;77(10):1523-1529. doi:10.1007/s00228-021-03137-6.Hepkema JT, Poelmann FB, Gouw ASH, de Haas RJ, Duiker EW, Blokzijl H,et al.Malignant Transformation of an HNF1a-Inactivated Hepatocellular Adenoma to Hepatocellular Carcinoma.Case Rep Gastroenterol. 2020 Nov 2;14(3):577-585. doi:10.1159/000510215.de Castro Coelho F, Barros C.The Potential of Hormonal Contraception to Influence Female Sexuality.Int J Reprod Med.2019 Mar 3;2019:9701384. doi:10.1155/2019/9701384Grandi G, Di Vinci P, Sgandurra A, Feliciello L, Monari F, Facchinetti F.Contraception During Perimenopause: Practical Guidance.Int J Womens Health. 2022 Jul 15;14:913-929. doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S288070.Vannuccini S, Clemenza S, Rossi M, Petraglia F.Hormonal treatments for endometriosis: The endocrine background.Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2022 Jun;23(3):333-355. doi:10.1007/s11154-021-09666-w.Doycheva I, Ehrmann DA.Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and obstructive sleep apnea in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2022 May;117(5):897-911. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.03.020.Steinberg Weiss M, Roe AH, Allison KC, Dodson WC, Kris-Etherton PM, Kunselman AR,et al.Lifestyle modifications alone or combined with hormonal contraceptives improve sexual dysfunction in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2021 Feb;115(2):474-482. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.08.1396.Kotsopoulos J.Oral Contraceptives and BRCA Cancer: A Balancing Act.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2022 Apr 11;114(4):483-484. doi:10.1093/jnci/djac006.Girum T, Wasie A.Return of fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Contracept Reprod Med. 2018 Jul 23;3:9. doi:10.1186/s40834-018-0064-y.
Ott M, Sucato G, Braverman P, Adelman W, Alderman E, Breuner C,et al.Contraception for Adolescents.Pediatrics.October 2014; 134 (4): e1257–e1281. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2300
Podfigurna A, Meczekalski B, Petraglia F, Luisi S.Clinical, hormonal and metabolic parameters in women with PCOS with different combined oral contraceptives (containing chlormadinone acetate versus drospirenone).J Endocrinol Invest. 2020 Apr;43(4):483-492. doi:10.1007/s40618-019-01133-3.
Creinin MD, Westhoff CL, Bouchard C, Chen MJ, Jensen JT, Kaunitz AM,et al.Estetrol-drospirenone combination oral contraceptive: North American phase 3 efficacy and safety results.Contraception. 2021 Sep;104(3):222-228. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2021.05.002.
Oedingen C, Scholz S, Razum O.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association of combined oral contraceptives on the risk of venous thromboembolism: the role of the progestogen type and estrogen dose.Thromb Res. 2018;165:68-78. doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2018.03.005
Mir D, Ardabilygazir A, Afshariyamchlou S, et al.Malignant Hypertension in Association with Low Estrogen Dose Oral Contraceptives: Case Report and Review of Literature.Cureus.2018 Jul 13;10(7):e2978. doi:10.7759/cureus.2978
Horvath S, Schreiber CA, Sonalkar S.Contraception. 2018 Jan 17. In: Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000–. PMID: 25905371.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Current Contraceptive Status Among Women Aged 15-49: United States, 2015-2017.
Roach RE, Helmerhorst FM, Lijfering WM, et al.Combined oral contraceptives: the risk of myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke.Cochrane Database Syst Rev.2015 Aug 27;2015(8):CD011054. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011054.pub2
Reddy V, Wurtz M, Patel SH, McCarthy M, Raval AP.Oral contraceptives and stroke: Foes or friends.Front Neuroendocrinol. 2022 Oct;67:101016. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101016.
Rahhal A, Khir F, Adam M, Aljundi A, Mohsen MK, Al-Suwaidi J.Low dose combined oral contraceptives induced thrombotic anterior wall myocardial infarction: a case report.BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2020 Apr 19;20(1):182. doi:10.1186/s12872-020-01462-9.
Satish S, Moore JF, Littlefield JM, Bishop IJ, Rojas KE.Re-Evaluating the Association Between Hormonal Contraception and Breast Cancer Risk.Breast Cancer (Dove Med Press). 2023 Mar 22;15:227-235. doi:10.2147/BCTT.S390664.
National Cancer Institute.Oral Contraceptives and Cancer Risk.
Serfaty D.Update on the contraceptive contraindications.J Gynecol Obstet Hum Reprod. 2019 May;48(5):297-307. doi:10.1016/j.jogoh.2019.02.006.
Khosrow-Khavar F, Sodhi M, Ganjizadeh-Zavareh S, Etminan M.Association between the use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of cholecystectomy in women of reproductive age.Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2021 Oct;77(10):1523-1529. doi:10.1007/s00228-021-03137-6.
Hepkema JT, Poelmann FB, Gouw ASH, de Haas RJ, Duiker EW, Blokzijl H,et al.Malignant Transformation of an HNF1a-Inactivated Hepatocellular Adenoma to Hepatocellular Carcinoma.Case Rep Gastroenterol. 2020 Nov 2;14(3):577-585. doi:10.1159/000510215.
de Castro Coelho F, Barros C.The Potential of Hormonal Contraception to Influence Female Sexuality.Int J Reprod Med.2019 Mar 3;2019:9701384. doi:10.1155/2019/9701384
Grandi G, Di Vinci P, Sgandurra A, Feliciello L, Monari F, Facchinetti F.Contraception During Perimenopause: Practical Guidance.Int J Womens Health. 2022 Jul 15;14:913-929. doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S288070.
Vannuccini S, Clemenza S, Rossi M, Petraglia F.Hormonal treatments for endometriosis: The endocrine background.Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2022 Jun;23(3):333-355. doi:10.1007/s11154-021-09666-w.
Doycheva I, Ehrmann DA.Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and obstructive sleep apnea in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2022 May;117(5):897-911. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.03.020.
Steinberg Weiss M, Roe AH, Allison KC, Dodson WC, Kris-Etherton PM, Kunselman AR,et al.Lifestyle modifications alone or combined with hormonal contraceptives improve sexual dysfunction in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.Fertil Steril. 2021 Feb;115(2):474-482. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.08.1396.
Kotsopoulos J.Oral Contraceptives and BRCA Cancer: A Balancing Act.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2022 Apr 11;114(4):483-484. doi:10.1093/jnci/djac006.
Girum T, Wasie A.Return of fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Contracept Reprod Med. 2018 Jul 23;3:9. doi:10.1186/s40834-018-0064-y.
Meet Our Medical Expert Board
Share Feedback
Was this page helpful?Thanks for your feedback!What is your feedback?OtherHelpfulReport an ErrorSubmit
Was this page helpful?
Thanks for your feedback!
What is your feedback?OtherHelpfulReport an ErrorSubmit
What is your feedback?
