Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsPenis AnatomyPenis FunctionPenis TypesCongenital DefectsMedical ConditionsDiagnosis
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Penis Anatomy
Penis Function
Penis Types
Congenital Defects
Medical Conditions
Diagnosis
The penis is a complex external organ used for sex, reproduction, and urination (peeing) in people assigned male at birth. The penis is comprised of theradix(root),corpus(shaft),glans(head),prepuce(foreskin), andmeatus(the opening through which urine andsemenexit the penis).
The penis is rich in sensory nerves that aid with sexual stimulation, arousal, anderections. Penises come in different shapes and sizes, with an average length of just over 5 inches. Some penises arecircumcised, while others areuncircumcised.
A Note on Gender and Sex TerminologyVerywell Health acknowledges thatsex and genderare related concepts, but they are not the same. To accurately reflect our sources, this article uses terms like “male," “man,” and “boy” as the sources use them.
A Note on Gender and Sex Terminology
Verywell Health acknowledges thatsex and genderare related concepts, but they are not the same. To accurately reflect our sources, this article uses terms like “male," “man,” and “boy” as the sources use them.
Anatomy of the Penis
The penis is one of the external organs of themale reproductive systemand theurinary system. It is located at the front of the body at the base of thepelvis. Thescrotum, containing thetestes(testicles), is situated just beneath the penis.
The penis consists of several major structures:
Functions of the Penis
The primary functions of the penis are urinary and sexual. The sexual function of the penis can be described as two stages: erection and ejaculation.
Urination
Between the penis and the bladder is the externalsphincter muscle, which can be controlled to hold in or release urine.
Erection
During an erection, arteries supplying the erectile tissues will dilate (widen), causing the penis to engorge (fill) with blood. The engorgement compresses the veins through which blood usually exits the penis. This “traps” the blood and helps sustain the erection.
An erection involves the complex interaction of muscles, nerves, chemicals, and blood vessels that work in coordination to engorge the penis with blood, including:
The process of achieving an erection is calledtumescence, while the return of the penis to its flaccid state is calleddetumescence.
Ejaculation
Types of Penises
Penises come in different sizes, shapes, and proportions. A penis can be thick or thin, have a proportionally larger or smaller head, or be short, long, or somewhere in between.
Penis Size
There is a wide variation in thesize of a penis. The size is based largely on the genes you inherit from your mother and father. Spontaneous mutations can also occur duringfetal developmentthat can influence the size and appearance of a penis independent of your inherited genes.
Theaverage penis sizeis smaller than what some may imagine. A 2020 review of studies involving 55,761 men reported that:
When an erect penis is two standard deviations below the average for a male’s age (less than 3.7 inches for an adult), it is referred to as a “micropenis.“A penis that is two standard deviations above the average for a male’s age (larger than 7.9 inches) is referred to as a “long penis.”
Types of Erection
It is during an erection that variations in a penis can become even more apparent. Depending on the size and structure of the corpus spongiosum, corpora cavernosa, tunica albuginea, and glans, an erect penis can take on strikingly different appearances.
An erect penis can be straight or bent. It can curve up, down, left, or right. It can appear proportional (like a cylinder) or non-proportional (with a thick shaft and small head or a small head and thick shaft).
One variation—referred to as a “shower” or a “grower”—refers to a penis that looks proportionately the same when flaccid or erect (“shower”) or smaller while flaccid but strikingly larger when erect (“grower”).
As such, penile fascia that is less distensible is more likely to be a “shower,” while penile fascia with greater distensibility is more likely to be a “grower.”
Does Race or Shoe Size Influence Penis Size?Race and ethnicity can affect the average penis size, but not as much as one might think. A 2018 study in theInternational Journal of Impotence Researchreported that among a cohort of Black and White males in Brazil, Black penises were larger on average. However, the overall difference was only around a quarter of an inch.There is no evidence to support the myth that foot size or nose size corresponds to penis size.
Does Race or Shoe Size Influence Penis Size?
Race and ethnicity can affect the average penis size, but not as much as one might think. A 2018 study in theInternational Journal of Impotence Researchreported that among a cohort of Black and White males in Brazil, Black penises were larger on average. However, the overall difference was only around a quarter of an inch.There is no evidence to support the myth that foot size or nose size corresponds to penis size.
Race and ethnicity can affect the average penis size, but not as much as one might think. A 2018 study in theInternational Journal of Impotence Researchreported that among a cohort of Black and White males in Brazil, Black penises were larger on average. However, the overall difference was only around a quarter of an inch.
There is no evidence to support the myth that foot size or nose size corresponds to penis size.
Penis Color
As with the skin on any part of your body, the color of your penis can vary with your race or ethnicity. Based on your genetics, skin cells calledmelanocyteswill produce or less of skin a pigment calledmelaninthat determines whether you (and your penis) are light-skinned, dark-skinned, or in between.
At the same time, the rush of blood into a penis during an erection can change its color, making it look darker, bluish, reddish, or purplish. This is due to a higher concentration of capillaries near the surface of the skin.
Some people simply have more capillaries than others, accounting for why some people experience this and others don’t.
Circumcised vs. Uncircumcised
Circumcision is usually an elective procedure but one that can also be used to treat certain medical conditions affecting the glans and/or foreskin. Circumcision is also regarded in some cultures and religions as a cultural mandate.
An uncircumcised penis has certain benefits as the foreskin has more nerve endings than the glans. With proper hygiene, a foreskin can also protect the head of the penis without any risk of infection or disease.
A circumcised penis also has advantages as the removal of the foreskin reduces the risk of infection and problems like phimosis and paraphimosis (see below). It may also modestly reduce the risk of certain STDs, like HIV.
Does Circumcision Reduce Sexual Pleasure?Despite the longstanding belief that the loss of a foreskin reduces sexual pleasure, a systematic review of 46 studies concluded that “male circumcision has minimal or no adverse effect, and in some studies, has benefits on sexual functions, sensation, satisfaction, and pleasure for males.”
Does Circumcision Reduce Sexual Pleasure?
Despite the longstanding belief that the loss of a foreskin reduces sexual pleasure, a systematic review of 46 studies concluded that “male circumcision has minimal or no adverse effect, and in some studies, has benefits on sexual functions, sensation, satisfaction, and pleasure for males.”
Congenital Conditions Affecting the Penis
Hypospadias and Epispadias
Hypospadias is a condition in which the opening of the urethra is on the underside of the penis rather than at the tip. It is one of the most common congenital abnormalities in males.Epispadiasis a similar condition in which the urethra opens on the top side of the penis.
Surgery is generally recommended to correct hypospadias either during infancy or early childhood. However, there are risks of long-term complications, including difficulty urinating and an increased risk ofurinary tract infections.
Chordee
Chordee is an abnormal curve of the penis at the time of birth. It is more common in males with hypospadias but can also occur on its own. In adolescent and adult males, chordee is most noticeable during an erection.
Chordee vs. Peyronie’s DiseaseChordee should not be confused with Peyronie’s disease. Peyronie’s is a condition that develops in adult males that causes an abnormal curve of the penis.
Chordee vs. Peyronie’s Disease
Chordee should not be confused with Peyronie’s disease. Peyronie’s is a condition that develops in adult males that causes an abnormal curve of the penis.
Micropenis
Micropenisis an abnormally small penis. It is defined as a stretched penis that is at least 2.5 times smaller than what would be expected at that stage of a male’s development. In adults, this would be stretched penis of less than 2.75 inches.
Aphalia
The congenital absence of a penis, called aphalia, is an extremely rare condition, affecting one of every 30 million births. It usually occurs with other congenital abnormalities affecting the heart or digestive tract. The cause of aphalia is unknown. So far, fewer than 100 cases have been reported.
Medical Conditions Affecting the Penis
There are a number of medical conditions that can affect the function or appearance of the penis in later life. These may affect the glans, foreskin, urethra, or erectile tissues.
Erectile Dysfunction
What Is Erectile Dysfunction?
Peyronie’s Disease
Peyronie’s disease (PD) is an abnormal curve of the penis that occurs in later life. Studies suggest that around 0.5% to 13% of adult males will experience PD at some time in their lives. The risk increases as a person gets older.
Peyronie’s disease is mainly the result of a prior injury to the penis during sex. With that said, PD is poorly understood and may occur for no known reason. If the symptoms of PD are severe, they can cause erectile dysfunction.
Penile Fracture
Apenile fractureoccurs when the thick membrane surrounding the corpora cavernosa, known as thetunica albuginea, ruptures during vigorous sex.
The tunica albuginea is supplied with a rich network of blood vessels that can cause bleeding and severe pain when ruptured. The scar tissue that results from a penile fracture may lead to Peyronie’s disease.
Phimosis and Paraphimosis
Phimosisis a condition in which the foreskin is too tight to be pulled back over the head of the penis. Phimosis is normal in male babies and toddlers, but, in older children, it may be the result of a skin condition that causes scarring. It is not usually a problem unless it causes symptoms.
Paraphimosisoccurs in an uncircumcised penis when the foreskin gets stuck in the retracted position. It is a medical emergency that can lead to tissue death if not treated immediately.
Priapism
Priapism is an erection that lasts more than four hours. It is not always the result of sexual arousal and can be quite painful.
Priapism occurs when blood becomes trapped in the penis and is unable to drain. If the condition is not treated immediately, it can lead to scarring and permanent erectile dysfunction.
Priapism can occur at any age and is more common in males with certain blood diseases likesickle cell diseaseandleukemia. Certain medications can also increase the risk of priapism.
Infection and Inflammation
The penis is vulnerable to infection. This includes sexually transmitted infections likegenital herpesorhuman papillomavirus (HPV), which affect the skin, andgonorrheaorchlamydia, which can affect the urethra. These and other infections can lead to penis inflammation.
Inflammatory conditions affecting the penis include:
What Causes a Swollen Penis?
Penile Cancer
Penile cancer is diagnosed in fewer than one per 100,000 males each year and accounts for fewer than 1% of all cancers in the United States.
How Penile Problems Are Diagnosed
The tests used to diagnose disorders of the penis depend on the symptoms and suspected cause. You may be referred to a urologist who specializes in disorders of the urinary tract and male reproductive organs.
Erection Problems
The diagnosis of erectile dysfunction starts with a review of your symptoms and sexual and medical history. This includes any medications you take and any emotional problems you may be experiencing.
The doctor may also order imaging studies like anultrasoundormagnetic resonance imaging (MRI)scan to evaluate soft tissues and blood flow. Penile imaging is often done while the penis is erect using the injection of a drug likeCaverject (alprostadil)which causesvasodilation(the widening of blood vessels).
Other tests may be used to see if you get erections at night, such asnocturnal tumescence testing.
The same tests and procedures are used in those with conditions like Peyronie’s disease which can cause erectile dysfunction.
Infections
If there is pain, inflammation, and discharge from the penis, the doctor will usually screen forsexually transmitted infections (STIs)or other infections. This may involve blood tests, urine tests, or a swab from inside the urethra.
If there are abnormal growths on the skin of the penis, askin biopsymay be performed to get a sample of tissue for evaluation in the lab.
Urination Problems
Problems with urination are usually investigated with a test called aurinalysisthat checks for abnormalities in your pee. This includes looking for pus and inflammatory chemicals that can occur with aurinary tract infection (UTI).
A test called avoiding cystourethrogrammay also be ordered if you have difficulty urinating. The test, which takes images while you are urinating, can help identify if there is a blockage.
Summary
The penis is a complex organ used for urination, sexual activity, and reproduction in people born biologically male. It contains a rich network of blood vessels that can cause the engorgement of the penis, leading to an erection.
27 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Clement P, Giuliano F.Anatomy and physiology of genital organs - men.Handb Clin Neurol. 2015:130:19-37. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63247-0.00003-1Alwaal A, Breyer BN, Lue TF.Normal male sexual function: emphasis on orgasm and ejaculation.Fertil Steril. 2015 Nov;104(5):1051–60. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.08.033Jung J, Jo HW, Kwon H, Jeong NY.Clinical neuroanatomy and neurotransmitter-mediated regulation of penile erection.Int Neurourol J. 2014 Jun;18(2):58–62. doi:10.5213/inj.2014.18.2.58Arnold AJ.A general theory of sexual differentiation.J Neurosci Res.2017 Jan 2;95(1-2):291–300. doi:10.1002/jnr.23884Belladelli F, Giudice FD, Glover F, et al.Worldwide temporal trends in penile length: a systematic review and meta-analysis.World J Mens Health. 2023. doi:10.5534/wjmh.220203Gunasekaran K, Khan SD.Micropenis. In:Sexual Medicine: Principles and Practice. New York, NY: Springer; 2019:113-20.National Library of Medicine.Long penis.Beland L.Evolution of the ideal penis: penile preferences throughout the ages.J Urol.2022 My:207(Suppl_5):e217 doi:10.1097/JU.0000000000002541.16Phelan PS.On the validity of metrics for defining penile distensibility phenotypes.Int J Impot Res.2018:30:361–363. doi:10.1038/s41443-018-0078-7Alves Barboza R, Da Silva EA, Ruellas T, Damião R.Anthropometric study of penile length in self-declared Brazilians regarding the color of the skin as White or Black: the study of a myth.Int J Impot Res. 2018;30(1):43-7. doi:10.1038/s41443-017-0009-zUniversity of California San Francisco.The circumcision decision.Morris BJ, Krieger JN.The contrasting evidence concerning the effect of male circumcision on sexual function, sensation, and pleasure: a systematic review,Sex Med.2020;8(4):577-598. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2020.08.011Van der Horst HJ, De Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5Montag S, Palmer LS.Abnormalities of penile curvature: chordee and penile torsion.Sci World J. 2011;11:1470-8. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.136Hatipoğlu N, Kurtoğlu S.Micropenis: etiology, diagnosis and treatment approaches.JClin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2013;5(4):217-23. doi:10.4274/Jcrpe.1135Berhane M, Abera G, Alemu S, Eshetu B.Aphalia: an extremely rare congenital genitourinary malformation-a case report.Ethiop J Health Sci.2019 May;29(3):409-12.Scranton RE, Goldstein I, Stecher VJ.Erectile dysfunction diagnosis and treatment as a means to improve medication adherence and optimize comorbidity management.J Sex Med. 2013;10(2):551-61. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02998.xPeyronie’s Disease.American Urological Association.Amer T, Wilson R, Chlosta P, et al.Penile fracture: a meta-analysis.Urol Int.2016;96(3):315-29. doi:10.1159/000444884Morris BJ, Matthews JG, Krieger JN.Prevalence of phimosis in males of all ages: systematic review.Urology. 2020;135:124-32. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2019.10.003Salonia A, Eardley I, Giuliano F, et al.European Association of Urology guidelines on priapism.Eur Urol. 2014;65(2):480-9. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2013.11.008Pandya I, Shinojia M, Vadukul D, Marfatia YS.Approach to balanitis/balanoposthitis: current guidelines.Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS.2014 Jul-Dec;35(2):155–157. doi:10.4103/2589-0557.142415Sell J, Nasir M, Courchesne C.Urethritis: rapid evidence review.Am Fam Physician.2021;103(9):553-558.Indiana University School of Medicine.Male urethral stricture disease.American Cancer Society.Key statistics for penile cancer.Lim KB.Epidemiology of clinical benign prostatic hyperplasia.Asian J Urol.2017;4(3):148-51. doi:10.1016/j.ajur.2017.06.004Lee LC, Lorenzo AJ, Koyle MA.The role of voiding cystourethrography in the investigation of children with urinary tract infections.Can Urol Assoc J.2016 May-Jun;10(5-6):210–14.
27 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Clement P, Giuliano F.Anatomy and physiology of genital organs - men.Handb Clin Neurol. 2015:130:19-37. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63247-0.00003-1Alwaal A, Breyer BN, Lue TF.Normal male sexual function: emphasis on orgasm and ejaculation.Fertil Steril. 2015 Nov;104(5):1051–60. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.08.033Jung J, Jo HW, Kwon H, Jeong NY.Clinical neuroanatomy and neurotransmitter-mediated regulation of penile erection.Int Neurourol J. 2014 Jun;18(2):58–62. doi:10.5213/inj.2014.18.2.58Arnold AJ.A general theory of sexual differentiation.J Neurosci Res.2017 Jan 2;95(1-2):291–300. doi:10.1002/jnr.23884Belladelli F, Giudice FD, Glover F, et al.Worldwide temporal trends in penile length: a systematic review and meta-analysis.World J Mens Health. 2023. doi:10.5534/wjmh.220203Gunasekaran K, Khan SD.Micropenis. In:Sexual Medicine: Principles and Practice. New York, NY: Springer; 2019:113-20.National Library of Medicine.Long penis.Beland L.Evolution of the ideal penis: penile preferences throughout the ages.J Urol.2022 My:207(Suppl_5):e217 doi:10.1097/JU.0000000000002541.16Phelan PS.On the validity of metrics for defining penile distensibility phenotypes.Int J Impot Res.2018:30:361–363. doi:10.1038/s41443-018-0078-7Alves Barboza R, Da Silva EA, Ruellas T, Damião R.Anthropometric study of penile length in self-declared Brazilians regarding the color of the skin as White or Black: the study of a myth.Int J Impot Res. 2018;30(1):43-7. doi:10.1038/s41443-017-0009-zUniversity of California San Francisco.The circumcision decision.Morris BJ, Krieger JN.The contrasting evidence concerning the effect of male circumcision on sexual function, sensation, and pleasure: a systematic review,Sex Med.2020;8(4):577-598. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2020.08.011Van der Horst HJ, De Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5Montag S, Palmer LS.Abnormalities of penile curvature: chordee and penile torsion.Sci World J. 2011;11:1470-8. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.136Hatipoğlu N, Kurtoğlu S.Micropenis: etiology, diagnosis and treatment approaches.JClin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2013;5(4):217-23. doi:10.4274/Jcrpe.1135Berhane M, Abera G, Alemu S, Eshetu B.Aphalia: an extremely rare congenital genitourinary malformation-a case report.Ethiop J Health Sci.2019 May;29(3):409-12.Scranton RE, Goldstein I, Stecher VJ.Erectile dysfunction diagnosis and treatment as a means to improve medication adherence and optimize comorbidity management.J Sex Med. 2013;10(2):551-61. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02998.xPeyronie’s Disease.American Urological Association.Amer T, Wilson R, Chlosta P, et al.Penile fracture: a meta-analysis.Urol Int.2016;96(3):315-29. doi:10.1159/000444884Morris BJ, Matthews JG, Krieger JN.Prevalence of phimosis in males of all ages: systematic review.Urology. 2020;135:124-32. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2019.10.003Salonia A, Eardley I, Giuliano F, et al.European Association of Urology guidelines on priapism.Eur Urol. 2014;65(2):480-9. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2013.11.008Pandya I, Shinojia M, Vadukul D, Marfatia YS.Approach to balanitis/balanoposthitis: current guidelines.Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS.2014 Jul-Dec;35(2):155–157. doi:10.4103/2589-0557.142415Sell J, Nasir M, Courchesne C.Urethritis: rapid evidence review.Am Fam Physician.2021;103(9):553-558.Indiana University School of Medicine.Male urethral stricture disease.American Cancer Society.Key statistics for penile cancer.Lim KB.Epidemiology of clinical benign prostatic hyperplasia.Asian J Urol.2017;4(3):148-51. doi:10.1016/j.ajur.2017.06.004Lee LC, Lorenzo AJ, Koyle MA.The role of voiding cystourethrography in the investigation of children with urinary tract infections.Can Urol Assoc J.2016 May-Jun;10(5-6):210–14.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Clement P, Giuliano F.Anatomy and physiology of genital organs - men.Handb Clin Neurol. 2015:130:19-37. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63247-0.00003-1Alwaal A, Breyer BN, Lue TF.Normal male sexual function: emphasis on orgasm and ejaculation.Fertil Steril. 2015 Nov;104(5):1051–60. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.08.033Jung J, Jo HW, Kwon H, Jeong NY.Clinical neuroanatomy and neurotransmitter-mediated regulation of penile erection.Int Neurourol J. 2014 Jun;18(2):58–62. doi:10.5213/inj.2014.18.2.58Arnold AJ.A general theory of sexual differentiation.J Neurosci Res.2017 Jan 2;95(1-2):291–300. doi:10.1002/jnr.23884Belladelli F, Giudice FD, Glover F, et al.Worldwide temporal trends in penile length: a systematic review and meta-analysis.World J Mens Health. 2023. doi:10.5534/wjmh.220203Gunasekaran K, Khan SD.Micropenis. In:Sexual Medicine: Principles and Practice. New York, NY: Springer; 2019:113-20.National Library of Medicine.Long penis.Beland L.Evolution of the ideal penis: penile preferences throughout the ages.J Urol.2022 My:207(Suppl_5):e217 doi:10.1097/JU.0000000000002541.16Phelan PS.On the validity of metrics for defining penile distensibility phenotypes.Int J Impot Res.2018:30:361–363. doi:10.1038/s41443-018-0078-7Alves Barboza R, Da Silva EA, Ruellas T, Damião R.Anthropometric study of penile length in self-declared Brazilians regarding the color of the skin as White or Black: the study of a myth.Int J Impot Res. 2018;30(1):43-7. doi:10.1038/s41443-017-0009-zUniversity of California San Francisco.The circumcision decision.Morris BJ, Krieger JN.The contrasting evidence concerning the effect of male circumcision on sexual function, sensation, and pleasure: a systematic review,Sex Med.2020;8(4):577-598. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2020.08.011Van der Horst HJ, De Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5Montag S, Palmer LS.Abnormalities of penile curvature: chordee and penile torsion.Sci World J. 2011;11:1470-8. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.136Hatipoğlu N, Kurtoğlu S.Micropenis: etiology, diagnosis and treatment approaches.JClin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2013;5(4):217-23. doi:10.4274/Jcrpe.1135Berhane M, Abera G, Alemu S, Eshetu B.Aphalia: an extremely rare congenital genitourinary malformation-a case report.Ethiop J Health Sci.2019 May;29(3):409-12.Scranton RE, Goldstein I, Stecher VJ.Erectile dysfunction diagnosis and treatment as a means to improve medication adherence and optimize comorbidity management.J Sex Med. 2013;10(2):551-61. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02998.xPeyronie’s Disease.American Urological Association.Amer T, Wilson R, Chlosta P, et al.Penile fracture: a meta-analysis.Urol Int.2016;96(3):315-29. doi:10.1159/000444884Morris BJ, Matthews JG, Krieger JN.Prevalence of phimosis in males of all ages: systematic review.Urology. 2020;135:124-32. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2019.10.003Salonia A, Eardley I, Giuliano F, et al.European Association of Urology guidelines on priapism.Eur Urol. 2014;65(2):480-9. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2013.11.008Pandya I, Shinojia M, Vadukul D, Marfatia YS.Approach to balanitis/balanoposthitis: current guidelines.Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS.2014 Jul-Dec;35(2):155–157. doi:10.4103/2589-0557.142415Sell J, Nasir M, Courchesne C.Urethritis: rapid evidence review.Am Fam Physician.2021;103(9):553-558.Indiana University School of Medicine.Male urethral stricture disease.American Cancer Society.Key statistics for penile cancer.Lim KB.Epidemiology of clinical benign prostatic hyperplasia.Asian J Urol.2017;4(3):148-51. doi:10.1016/j.ajur.2017.06.004Lee LC, Lorenzo AJ, Koyle MA.The role of voiding cystourethrography in the investigation of children with urinary tract infections.Can Urol Assoc J.2016 May-Jun;10(5-6):210–14.
Clement P, Giuliano F.Anatomy and physiology of genital organs - men.Handb Clin Neurol. 2015:130:19-37. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63247-0.00003-1
Alwaal A, Breyer BN, Lue TF.Normal male sexual function: emphasis on orgasm and ejaculation.Fertil Steril. 2015 Nov;104(5):1051–60. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.08.033
Jung J, Jo HW, Kwon H, Jeong NY.Clinical neuroanatomy and neurotransmitter-mediated regulation of penile erection.Int Neurourol J. 2014 Jun;18(2):58–62. doi:10.5213/inj.2014.18.2.58
Arnold AJ.A general theory of sexual differentiation.J Neurosci Res.2017 Jan 2;95(1-2):291–300. doi:10.1002/jnr.23884
Belladelli F, Giudice FD, Glover F, et al.Worldwide temporal trends in penile length: a systematic review and meta-analysis.World J Mens Health. 2023. doi:10.5534/wjmh.220203
Gunasekaran K, Khan SD.Micropenis. In:Sexual Medicine: Principles and Practice. New York, NY: Springer; 2019:113-20.
National Library of Medicine.Long penis.
Beland L.Evolution of the ideal penis: penile preferences throughout the ages.J Urol.2022 My:207(Suppl_5):e217 doi:10.1097/JU.0000000000002541.16
Phelan PS.On the validity of metrics for defining penile distensibility phenotypes.Int J Impot Res.2018:30:361–363. doi:10.1038/s41443-018-0078-7
Alves Barboza R, Da Silva EA, Ruellas T, Damião R.Anthropometric study of penile length in self-declared Brazilians regarding the color of the skin as White or Black: the study of a myth.Int J Impot Res. 2018;30(1):43-7. doi:10.1038/s41443-017-0009-z
University of California San Francisco.The circumcision decision.
Morris BJ, Krieger JN.The contrasting evidence concerning the effect of male circumcision on sexual function, sensation, and pleasure: a systematic review,Sex Med.2020;8(4):577-598. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2020.08.011
Van der Horst HJ, De Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5
Montag S, Palmer LS.Abnormalities of penile curvature: chordee and penile torsion.Sci World J. 2011;11:1470-8. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.136
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