Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsUsesDeficiencySide EffectsPrecautionsDosageToxicityInteractionsStoringFrequently Asked QuestionsSources & What to Look For
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Uses
Deficiency
Side Effects
Precautions
Dosage
Toxicity
Interactions
Storing
Frequently Asked Questions
Sources & What to Look For
Vitamin K isfat-soluble vitaminthat plays a role in blood clotting in the body. It comes in two forms: vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and vitamin K2 (menaquinones).
Vitamin K is also available as a dietary supplement. However, most people get the amount of vitamin K they need through diet alone. It is injected as a supplement in newborns, though, as they do not produce vitamin K right away nor do they get sufficient amounts from breast milk.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate supplements the way it regulates prescription drugs. That means some supplement products may not contain what the label says. Whenchoosing a supplement, look for independently tested products and consult a healthcare provider, registered dietitian nutritionist (RD or RDN), or pharmacist.
Catherine McQueen / Getty Images
Uses of Vitamin K
There is little research to suggest that vitamin K can play a role in disease prevention. The main use of vitamin K is to treat a vitamin K deficiency, which is rare in the United States.
Vitamin K is routinely provided as an intramuscular (IM) injection to newborns to prevent deficiency.The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that vitamin K be given within the first six hours of life to all newborns.
No supplement is intended to treat, cure, or prevent disease. However, vitamin K has also been researched for its role in:
Blood Clotting
Vitamin K helps produce the proteins in the body that are essential for blood clotting. Vitamin K therapy has been used to reverse the effects ofanticoagulants (blood thinners).
An example of this may be someone prescribed anticoagulants who suddenly requires emergency surgery. In this case, 2.5 to 5 milligrams (mg) of vitamin K can be administered to reverse the anticoagulation effects and prevent excess bleeding.
Bone Health
Vitamin K is thought to contribute to bone health due to its role in producing proteins responsible for bone formation.However, there is not enough research on vitamin K to show whether vitamin K supplementation plays a direct role in improving bone health or preventingosteoporosis.
Results of research on vitamin K for osteoporosis prevention are mixed and include:
Supplements for Bone Health: Essential Vitamins & Minerals
Heart Disease Prevention
Research on vitamin K supplementation forheart disease preventionhas been inconclusive.
Vitamin K has a role in the formation of a protein called matrix Gla-protein (MGP). MGP blocks vascularcalcification(mineral deposits in the walls of the arteries and veins), but it depends on vitamin K for activation.Vascular calcification is associated with an increased risk of heart disease.
However, it is still unclear whether supplementing vitamin K can slow vascular calcification.
Furthermore, a review in theCochrane Databaseconcluded that there is not enough evidence to support the use of vitamin K in the primary prevention of heart disease.
Supplement FactsActive ingredient(s): Phylloquinone or menaquinoneAlternate name(s):Phylloquinone, menaquinone, menadione, phytonadioneSuggested dose: For healthy individuals, follow the recommended adequate intake (AI). Talk to your healthcare provider about other dosing options.Safety considerations: Consult with your healthcare provider before taking vitamin K; it can interact with several medications.
Supplement Facts
Active ingredient(s): Phylloquinone or menaquinoneAlternate name(s):Phylloquinone, menaquinone, menadione, phytonadioneSuggested dose: For healthy individuals, follow the recommended adequate intake (AI). Talk to your healthcare provider about other dosing options.Safety considerations: Consult with your healthcare provider before taking vitamin K; it can interact with several medications.
Vitamin K Deficiency
Vitamin K deficiency is rare in adults but happens often in infants.
Newborns are routinely given a standard vitamin K injection right after birth to prevent deficiency. This is because:
In adults, vitamin K deficiency is most often related to malabsorption disorders. People with malabsorption disorders likecystic fibrosis (CF),celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, and short bowel syndrome may need supplemental vitamin K.
What Causes a Vitamin K Deficiency?
A vitamin K deficiency can occur from inadequate intake or poor absorption in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
Most people get enough vitamin K in their diets. The bacteria in our GI tract also synthesize (combine with) vitamin K.
Poor absorption of vitamin K occurs secondary to a GI condition or malabsorption (difficulty in absorbing or digesting nutrients). Poor absorption may also be a side effect of some medications.
Groups at Risk of a Vitamin K Deficiency
Those at greatest risk of a vitamin K deficiency include:
People with a deficiency as a result of fat malabsorption should take an oralsupplement of vitamin Kin a water-soluble form.
Although rare, there are a few case reports of vitamin K deficiency and complications in people and their infants after experiencinghyperemesis (severe nausea and vomiting)during pregnancy.
How Do I Know If I Have a Vitamin K Deficiency?
If you have a GI condition or fat malabsorption, you are at greater risk of vitamin K deficiency. Symptoms of malabsorption include frequent diarrhea, light-colored stools, and weight loss.
Vitamin K levels in the blood are not routinely assessed in most people, nor are they a good way to measure for vitamin K.
Prothrombin timeis an indicator of vitamin K status.Prothrombin time is a measure of the time it takes blood to clot. In those prescribed anticoagulants, prothrombin times are routinely assessed to monitor the effectiveness of anticoagulant dosing.
Someone with a vitamin K deficiency will also bruise or bleed more easily.Although uncommon,ecchymosisorpetechiae(skin conditions) may also be present.
What Are the Side Effects of Vitamin K?
Vitamin K supplements aren’t recommended unless your healthcare provider indicates you need additional vitamin K. Side effects of supplementing vitamin K are rare when taken at the recommended dose.
There may be side effects of taking vitamin K and medications such as blood thinners, aspirin, antibiotics, and more. Taking vitamin K with blood thinners can make the medication less effective. Antibiotic use may block the action of and reduce vitamin K status in the body.
Since vitamin K works to clot the blood, those prescribed the blood-thinning medication Jantoven (warfarin) or those withclotting disordersmust be mindful of their vitamin K intake.
Adding more vitamin K to your usual intake will make the medications less effective. It is important to keep your vitamin K intake consistent.
Dosage: How Much Vitamin K Should I Take?
Always speak with a healthcare provider before taking a supplement to ensure that the supplement and dosage are appropriate for your needs.
Most people can meet their vitamin K needs through diet alone. For supplementation, dosing can vary depending on the cause of the deficiency.
At birth, newborns routinely receive a 0.5 to 1 mg vitamin K intramuscular injection to prevent a deficiency.
Note that the AI for vitamin K is provided in micrograms (mcg). Some dosing suggestions for vitamin K are in milligrams.For conversion, 1 mg equals 1,000 mcg. When looking at supplements, it is important to look at the amounts and units of measure.
Note that the AI for vitamin K is provided in micrograms (mcg). Some dosing suggestions for vitamin K are in milligrams.
For conversion, 1 mg equals 1,000 mcg. When looking at supplements, it is important to look at the amounts and units of measure.
What Happens If I Take Too Much Vitamin K?
There are no known adverse events associated with excess vitamin K intake. There is also no tolerable upper limit (TUL) set for vitamin K.
Those who require anticoagulant medications should be mindful of their vitamin K intake since it can reduce the effectiveness of their medication.
Vitamin K interacts with the following medications:
How to Store Vitamin K
Frequently Asked QuestionsFoods with the highest amount of vitamin K are typically leafy green vegetables. Spinach and collard greens are great sources of vitamin K. Other plant-based foods containing vitamin K are asparagus, broccoli, soybeans, legumes, and strawberries. Eggs also provide vitamin K.Before taking vitamin K daily, you should talk to your healthcare provider, who can help you weigh the risks and benefits of supplementing vitamin K.
Foods with the highest amount of vitamin K are typically leafy green vegetables. Spinach and collard greens are great sources of vitamin K. Other plant-based foods containing vitamin K are asparagus, broccoli, soybeans, legumes, and strawberries. Eggs also provide vitamin K.
Before taking vitamin K daily, you should talk to your healthcare provider, who can help you weigh the risks and benefits of supplementing vitamin K.
Sources of Vitamin K & What to Look For
Vitamin K is mostly obtained through diet.
It is also available as a single nutrient supplement and in multivitamin products. The amount of vitamin K in multivitamin products is usually less than 75% of the daily value.
Vitamin K can be found in fat-soluble vitamin products, which may also contain vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Food Sources of Vitamin K
Foods with the highest amount of vitamin K are typically leafy green vegetables. Spinach and collard greens are great sources of vitamin K.
Other foods that are a source of vitamin K include:
Summary
Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that doesn’t require supplementation very often. It is easy to get adequate amounts of vitamin K through the diet, and a deficiency is rare. Certain fat malabsorption disorders may put you at higher risk of a deficiency.
Vitamin K functions to help with blood clotting. Therefore, sudden changes in the amount of vitamin K consumed can make anticoagulant medications (e.g., warfarin) less effective.
If you suspect you need to supplement vitamin K, it should be discussed with your healthcare provider first.
19 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin K.Sankar MJ, Chandrasekaran A, Kumar P, et al.Vitamin K prophylaxis for prevention of vitamin K deficiency bleeding: a systematic review.J Perinatol. 2016;36 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S29-S35. doi:10.1038/jp.2016.30Hand I, Noble L, Abrams SA, et al.Vitamin K and the newborn infant.Pediatrics. 2022; 149 (3): e2021056036. doi:10.1542/peds.2021-056036Khatib R, Ludwikowska M, Witt DM, et al.Vitamin K for reversal of excessive vitamin K antagonist anticoagulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Blood Adv. 2019;3(5):789-796. doi:10.1182/bloodadvances.2018025163Seftel MD.Dose of vitamin K in emergency reversal of warfarin anticoagulation.CMAJ. 2011;183(3):349. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111-2011Zhou M, Han S, Zhang W, Wu D.Efficacy and safety of vitamin K2 for postmenopausal women with osteoporosis at a long-term follow-up: meta-analysis and systematic review.J Bone Miner Metab. 2022;40(5):763-772. doi:10.1007/s00774-022-01342-6Hu L, Ji J, Li D, Meng J, Yu B.The combined effect of vitamin K and calcium on bone mineral density in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Orthop Surg Res. 2021;16(1):592. doi:10.1186/s13018-021-02728-4Hao G, Zhang B, Gu M, et al.Vitamin K intake and the risk of fractures: a meta-analysis.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(17):e6725. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006725Mott A, Bradley T, Wright K, et al.Effect of vitamin K on bone mineral density and fractures in adults: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials[published correction appears in Osteoporos Int. 2020 Nov;31(11):2269-2270].Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(8):1543-1559. doi:10.1007/s00198-019-04949-0Binkley N, Harke J, Krueger D, et al.Vitamin K treatment reduces undercarboxylated osteocalcin but does not alter bone turnover, density, or geometry in healthy postmenopausal North American women.J Bone Miner Res. 2009;24(6):983-991. doi:10.1359/jbmr.081254Delanaye P, Krzesinski JM, Warling X, et al.Dephosphorylated-uncarboxylated Matrix Gla protein concentration is predictive of vitamin K status and is correlated with vascular calcification in a cohort of hemodialysis patients.BMC Nephrol. 2014;15:145. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-15-145Wu M, Rementer C, Giachelli CM.Vascular calcification: an update on mechanisms and challenges in treatment.Calcif Tissue Int. 2013;93(4):365-373. doi:10.1007/s00223-013-9712-zVlasschaert C, Goss CJ, Pilkey NG, et al.Vitamin K supplementation for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where is the evidence? a systematic review of controlled trials.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):2909. doi:10.3390/nu12102909Hartley L, Clar C, Ghannam O, et al.Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;2015(9):CD011148. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011148.pub2Jagannath VA, Thaker V, Chang AB, Price AI.Vitamin K supplementation for cystic fibrosis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;8(8):CD008482. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008482.pub5Nijsten K, van der Minnen L, Wiegers HMG, et al.Hyperemesis gravidarum and vitamin K deficiency: a systematic review.Br J Nutr. 2022;128(1):30-42. doi:10.1017/S0007114521002865MedlinePlus.Malabsorption syndromes.DiNicolantonio JJ, Bhutani J, O’Keefe JH.The health benefits of vitamin K.Open Heart. 2015;2(1):e000300. doi: 10.1136/openhrt-2015-000300Gahalaut P, Chauhan S.Vitamin k deficiency bleeding presenting as nodular purpura in infancy: a rare and life-threatening entity.Indian J Dermatol. 2013;58(5):407. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.117334
19 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin K.Sankar MJ, Chandrasekaran A, Kumar P, et al.Vitamin K prophylaxis for prevention of vitamin K deficiency bleeding: a systematic review.J Perinatol. 2016;36 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S29-S35. doi:10.1038/jp.2016.30Hand I, Noble L, Abrams SA, et al.Vitamin K and the newborn infant.Pediatrics. 2022; 149 (3): e2021056036. doi:10.1542/peds.2021-056036Khatib R, Ludwikowska M, Witt DM, et al.Vitamin K for reversal of excessive vitamin K antagonist anticoagulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Blood Adv. 2019;3(5):789-796. doi:10.1182/bloodadvances.2018025163Seftel MD.Dose of vitamin K in emergency reversal of warfarin anticoagulation.CMAJ. 2011;183(3):349. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111-2011Zhou M, Han S, Zhang W, Wu D.Efficacy and safety of vitamin K2 for postmenopausal women with osteoporosis at a long-term follow-up: meta-analysis and systematic review.J Bone Miner Metab. 2022;40(5):763-772. doi:10.1007/s00774-022-01342-6Hu L, Ji J, Li D, Meng J, Yu B.The combined effect of vitamin K and calcium on bone mineral density in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Orthop Surg Res. 2021;16(1):592. doi:10.1186/s13018-021-02728-4Hao G, Zhang B, Gu M, et al.Vitamin K intake and the risk of fractures: a meta-analysis.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(17):e6725. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006725Mott A, Bradley T, Wright K, et al.Effect of vitamin K on bone mineral density and fractures in adults: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials[published correction appears in Osteoporos Int. 2020 Nov;31(11):2269-2270].Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(8):1543-1559. doi:10.1007/s00198-019-04949-0Binkley N, Harke J, Krueger D, et al.Vitamin K treatment reduces undercarboxylated osteocalcin but does not alter bone turnover, density, or geometry in healthy postmenopausal North American women.J Bone Miner Res. 2009;24(6):983-991. doi:10.1359/jbmr.081254Delanaye P, Krzesinski JM, Warling X, et al.Dephosphorylated-uncarboxylated Matrix Gla protein concentration is predictive of vitamin K status and is correlated with vascular calcification in a cohort of hemodialysis patients.BMC Nephrol. 2014;15:145. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-15-145Wu M, Rementer C, Giachelli CM.Vascular calcification: an update on mechanisms and challenges in treatment.Calcif Tissue Int. 2013;93(4):365-373. doi:10.1007/s00223-013-9712-zVlasschaert C, Goss CJ, Pilkey NG, et al.Vitamin K supplementation for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where is the evidence? a systematic review of controlled trials.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):2909. doi:10.3390/nu12102909Hartley L, Clar C, Ghannam O, et al.Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;2015(9):CD011148. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011148.pub2Jagannath VA, Thaker V, Chang AB, Price AI.Vitamin K supplementation for cystic fibrosis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;8(8):CD008482. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008482.pub5Nijsten K, van der Minnen L, Wiegers HMG, et al.Hyperemesis gravidarum and vitamin K deficiency: a systematic review.Br J Nutr. 2022;128(1):30-42. doi:10.1017/S0007114521002865MedlinePlus.Malabsorption syndromes.DiNicolantonio JJ, Bhutani J, O’Keefe JH.The health benefits of vitamin K.Open Heart. 2015;2(1):e000300. doi: 10.1136/openhrt-2015-000300Gahalaut P, Chauhan S.Vitamin k deficiency bleeding presenting as nodular purpura in infancy: a rare and life-threatening entity.Indian J Dermatol. 2013;58(5):407. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.117334
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin K.Sankar MJ, Chandrasekaran A, Kumar P, et al.Vitamin K prophylaxis for prevention of vitamin K deficiency bleeding: a systematic review.J Perinatol. 2016;36 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S29-S35. doi:10.1038/jp.2016.30Hand I, Noble L, Abrams SA, et al.Vitamin K and the newborn infant.Pediatrics. 2022; 149 (3): e2021056036. doi:10.1542/peds.2021-056036Khatib R, Ludwikowska M, Witt DM, et al.Vitamin K for reversal of excessive vitamin K antagonist anticoagulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Blood Adv. 2019;3(5):789-796. doi:10.1182/bloodadvances.2018025163Seftel MD.Dose of vitamin K in emergency reversal of warfarin anticoagulation.CMAJ. 2011;183(3):349. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111-2011Zhou M, Han S, Zhang W, Wu D.Efficacy and safety of vitamin K2 for postmenopausal women with osteoporosis at a long-term follow-up: meta-analysis and systematic review.J Bone Miner Metab. 2022;40(5):763-772. doi:10.1007/s00774-022-01342-6Hu L, Ji J, Li D, Meng J, Yu B.The combined effect of vitamin K and calcium on bone mineral density in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Orthop Surg Res. 2021;16(1):592. doi:10.1186/s13018-021-02728-4Hao G, Zhang B, Gu M, et al.Vitamin K intake and the risk of fractures: a meta-analysis.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(17):e6725. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006725Mott A, Bradley T, Wright K, et al.Effect of vitamin K on bone mineral density and fractures in adults: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials[published correction appears in Osteoporos Int. 2020 Nov;31(11):2269-2270].Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(8):1543-1559. doi:10.1007/s00198-019-04949-0Binkley N, Harke J, Krueger D, et al.Vitamin K treatment reduces undercarboxylated osteocalcin but does not alter bone turnover, density, or geometry in healthy postmenopausal North American women.J Bone Miner Res. 2009;24(6):983-991. doi:10.1359/jbmr.081254Delanaye P, Krzesinski JM, Warling X, et al.Dephosphorylated-uncarboxylated Matrix Gla protein concentration is predictive of vitamin K status and is correlated with vascular calcification in a cohort of hemodialysis patients.BMC Nephrol. 2014;15:145. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-15-145Wu M, Rementer C, Giachelli CM.Vascular calcification: an update on mechanisms and challenges in treatment.Calcif Tissue Int. 2013;93(4):365-373. doi:10.1007/s00223-013-9712-zVlasschaert C, Goss CJ, Pilkey NG, et al.Vitamin K supplementation for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where is the evidence? a systematic review of controlled trials.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):2909. doi:10.3390/nu12102909Hartley L, Clar C, Ghannam O, et al.Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;2015(9):CD011148. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011148.pub2Jagannath VA, Thaker V, Chang AB, Price AI.Vitamin K supplementation for cystic fibrosis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;8(8):CD008482. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008482.pub5Nijsten K, van der Minnen L, Wiegers HMG, et al.Hyperemesis gravidarum and vitamin K deficiency: a systematic review.Br J Nutr. 2022;128(1):30-42. doi:10.1017/S0007114521002865MedlinePlus.Malabsorption syndromes.DiNicolantonio JJ, Bhutani J, O’Keefe JH.The health benefits of vitamin K.Open Heart. 2015;2(1):e000300. doi: 10.1136/openhrt-2015-000300Gahalaut P, Chauhan S.Vitamin k deficiency bleeding presenting as nodular purpura in infancy: a rare and life-threatening entity.Indian J Dermatol. 2013;58(5):407. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.117334
National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin K.
Sankar MJ, Chandrasekaran A, Kumar P, et al.Vitamin K prophylaxis for prevention of vitamin K deficiency bleeding: a systematic review.J Perinatol. 2016;36 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):S29-S35. doi:10.1038/jp.2016.30
Hand I, Noble L, Abrams SA, et al.Vitamin K and the newborn infant.Pediatrics. 2022; 149 (3): e2021056036. doi:10.1542/peds.2021-056036
Khatib R, Ludwikowska M, Witt DM, et al.Vitamin K for reversal of excessive vitamin K antagonist anticoagulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Blood Adv. 2019;3(5):789-796. doi:10.1182/bloodadvances.2018025163
Seftel MD.Dose of vitamin K in emergency reversal of warfarin anticoagulation.CMAJ. 2011;183(3):349. doi:10.1503/cmaj.111-2011
Zhou M, Han S, Zhang W, Wu D.Efficacy and safety of vitamin K2 for postmenopausal women with osteoporosis at a long-term follow-up: meta-analysis and systematic review.J Bone Miner Metab. 2022;40(5):763-772. doi:10.1007/s00774-022-01342-6
Hu L, Ji J, Li D, Meng J, Yu B.The combined effect of vitamin K and calcium on bone mineral density in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Orthop Surg Res. 2021;16(1):592. doi:10.1186/s13018-021-02728-4
Hao G, Zhang B, Gu M, et al.Vitamin K intake and the risk of fractures: a meta-analysis.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(17):e6725. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006725
Mott A, Bradley T, Wright K, et al.Effect of vitamin K on bone mineral density and fractures in adults: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials[published correction appears in Osteoporos Int. 2020 Nov;31(11):2269-2270].Osteoporos Int. 2019;30(8):1543-1559. doi:10.1007/s00198-019-04949-0
Binkley N, Harke J, Krueger D, et al.Vitamin K treatment reduces undercarboxylated osteocalcin but does not alter bone turnover, density, or geometry in healthy postmenopausal North American women.J Bone Miner Res. 2009;24(6):983-991. doi:10.1359/jbmr.081254
Delanaye P, Krzesinski JM, Warling X, et al.Dephosphorylated-uncarboxylated Matrix Gla protein concentration is predictive of vitamin K status and is correlated with vascular calcification in a cohort of hemodialysis patients.BMC Nephrol. 2014;15:145. doi:10.1186/1471-2369-15-145
Wu M, Rementer C, Giachelli CM.Vascular calcification: an update on mechanisms and challenges in treatment.Calcif Tissue Int. 2013;93(4):365-373. doi:10.1007/s00223-013-9712-z
Vlasschaert C, Goss CJ, Pilkey NG, et al.Vitamin K supplementation for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where is the evidence? a systematic review of controlled trials.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):2909. doi:10.3390/nu12102909
Hartley L, Clar C, Ghannam O, et al.Vitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;2015(9):CD011148. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011148.pub2
Jagannath VA, Thaker V, Chang AB, Price AI.Vitamin K supplementation for cystic fibrosis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;8(8):CD008482. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008482.pub5
Nijsten K, van der Minnen L, Wiegers HMG, et al.Hyperemesis gravidarum and vitamin K deficiency: a systematic review.Br J Nutr. 2022;128(1):30-42. doi:10.1017/S0007114521002865
MedlinePlus.Malabsorption syndromes.
DiNicolantonio JJ, Bhutani J, O’Keefe JH.The health benefits of vitamin K.Open Heart. 2015;2(1):e000300. doi: 10.1136/openhrt-2015-000300
Gahalaut P, Chauhan S.Vitamin k deficiency bleeding presenting as nodular purpura in infancy: a rare and life-threatening entity.Indian J Dermatol. 2013;58(5):407. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.117334
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