Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhich Is Better?What Is Fentanyl?What Is Dilaudid?SafetyThe ResearchAlternativesChallenges and Considerations
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Which Is Better?
What Is Fentanyl?
What Is Dilaudid?
Safety
The Research
Alternatives
Challenges and Considerations
FentanylandDilaudid (hydromorphone)are two potent opioid pain relievers.
Opioids are a family of medicines that produce effects similar to morphine.These medicines are Schedule II controlled substances per the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).This designation means they are likely to cause dependence or to be abused.
There are some crucial nuances between fentanyl and Dilaudid.
This article delves into how they work, conditions they treat, safety considerations, and alternatives.
Richard Bailey / Getty Images
Your healthcare provider will help determine which is better for your situation.
Determining whether fentanyl or Dilaudid is better depends on several factors, including what they are treating, any contradictions you may have, whether you are pregnant or breastfeeding, and more.
Both medications have the potential for abuse and need to be used with caution.Read on for more information about what each medication treats and things to keep in mind.
Opioid Misuse and AddictionWorldwide, over 16 million people struggle withopioid use disorder (OUD), including more than 2 million in the United States alone.Some signs of OUD include:A strong desire to take opioidsNeeding higher doses to achieve the same effects (tolerance)Disruption of daily life, including health, relationships, or work due to opioid useWithdrawal symptomswhen these medications are stoppedIf you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helplineat1-800-662-4357for information on support and treatment facilities in your area. It’s available 24/7.
Opioid Misuse and Addiction
Worldwide, over 16 million people struggle withopioid use disorder (OUD), including more than 2 million in the United States alone.Some signs of OUD include:A strong desire to take opioidsNeeding higher doses to achieve the same effects (tolerance)Disruption of daily life, including health, relationships, or work due to opioid useWithdrawal symptomswhen these medications are stoppedIf you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helplineat1-800-662-4357for information on support and treatment facilities in your area. It’s available 24/7.
Worldwide, over 16 million people struggle withopioid use disorder (OUD), including more than 2 million in the United States alone.
Some signs of OUD include:
If you or a loved one are struggling with substance use or addiction, contact theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helplineat1-800-662-4357for information on support and treatment facilities in your area. It’s available 24/7.
Fentanylis a powerful opioid pain medicine that is synthetic (made in a lab). It’s 50 times more potent than heroin and 100 times more potent than morphine.
Fentanyl was approved in the U.S. in the late 1960s as an intravenous (IV) pain medicine.Today, it’s available as prescription products in the following formulations:
Street use of fentanyl has spiked since 2013, when it began to be made illegally around the world and mixed with other drugs like heroin and cocaine.Fentanyl that’s manufactured illegally is either sold as a powder or tablet, often one that’s made to look like another medication, such asPercocet (oxycodone with Tylenol).
Fentanyl and drugs related to it are now the main drivers of the opioid epidemic in the United States.In 2022, illegal fentanyl products were responsible for 70% of deaths due to drug overdoses in the U.S. Over 76,000 people died from fentanyl overdoses in the U.S. alone that year.
What It Treats
The FDA has approved prescription fentanyl for the following uses:
How It Works
Side Effects
Common side effects of fentanyl include the following:
Serious side effects can include:
Using fentanyl can be life-threatening. Symptoms of an overdose (taking too much fentanyl) include:
Dilaudid (hydromorphone)is a semi-syntheticopioid pain medication (made in a lab but derived from morphine).It’s been used in the U.S. since the 1920sand is two to eight times stronger than morphine.
Dilaudid is available as a prescription medication in the following forms:
Common side effects of Dilaudid include:
Signs of an overdose include the following:
Opioid Overdose
Overdosing on an opioid like fentanyl or Dilaudid can cause death. If you suspect someone has overdosed, call 911 right away.
If you take an opioid pain medication, discuss with your healthcare provider or pharmacist how to have naloxone on hand in case of an overdose. Naloxone products are available with a prescription or over-the-counter (OTC).
Safety Considerations
There are some important considerations to keep in mind if your healthcare provider prescribes fentanyl or Dilaudid for chronic pain or another condition.
Contraindications
Some populations shouldnotuse fentanyl or Dilaudid due to safety risks.
People who use fentanyl patches should be “opioid-tolerant.” This means that a person has been taking opioids like the following for at least one week, around the clock:
Drug Interactions
Both fentanyl and Dilaudid can have dangerous interactions with other medications.
For instance, medications that inhibit the liver enzymes that are responsible for breaking down fentanyl (cytochrome P450 3A4) will increase the level of fentanyl in the body. This can cause breathing problems or death.
Taking a class of medications calledmonoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)with Dilaudid will increase drug levels of Dilaudid in the body.This can cause dangerous side effects.
Some medications can interact with both fentanyl and Dilaudid. These include:
Be sure to screen for any drug interactions with your current regimen before starting fentanyl or Dilaudid.
A healthcare provider or pharmacist is the best resource for determining whether one of these medications is a safe option for you.
Dosing and Administration
It is essential to follow your healthcare provider’s instructions for dosages of these or any other opioids. Discuss any questions about how to take your medication with your healthcare provider or pharmacist to ensure safety.
Here are a few specifics to keep in mind when taking fentanyl or Dilaudid:
Be aware that even when opioids are taken as prescribed, they can cause drug addiction, overdose, and even death.
Because both fentanyl and Dilaudid pose a danger to people who are not used to opioids, these medications should be kept in a locked cabinet away from children, pets, and visitors.
Much of the current research, particularly involving fentanyl, centers on how to prevent and treat overdoses. For example, because illegal fentanyl acts so quickly, in some cases, naloxone may kick in too late to be effective.
Some interesting studies have compared fentanyl and Dilaudid to other pain medications:
If you don’t feel comfortable taking an opioid, or your healthcare provider doesn’t recommend one for you, know that there are many alternative pain management strategies.
Some of these include:
Potential Challenges and Considerations
Despite a 40% decline in opioid prescriptions in the U.S. since 2010, deaths due to opioid overdoses are still increasing.The U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued guidelines in 2016 to limit the prescribing of opioids. These guidelines include:
Public health initiativeshave cropped up to address opioid misuse and addiction, mainly focusing on the illicit (illegal) drug use of fentanyl, which is driving the epidemic in the U.S.
Other initiatives are more controversial and not mainstream in the U.S. An example is safe injection sites, public places where people can use opioids under medical supervision.
Summary
Fentanyl and Dilaudid are two strong opioid medications used to treat some types of pain. Fentanyl is more potent, and some forms of it should only be used for people who are used to taking opioids.
Illegally-manufactured fentanyl is currently the driver of the opioid epidemic. When mixed with other recreational drugs, it’s hazardous.
Keep in mind that while they’re both very effective pain relievers, fentanyl and Dilaudid carry risks of dependence, addiction, and overdose. Some populations shouldn’t take them due to safety concerns. These medicines also have some significant drug interactions to be aware of, including alcohol, some antidepressants, and medications for anxiety.
If you are prescribed fentanyl or Dilaudid, be sure to take it exactly as directed for optimal safety. Never share it with others, and plan to keep Narcan on hand in case of an overdose.
27 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Pérez-Mañá C, Papaseit E, Fonseca F, et al.Drug interactions with new synthetic opioids.Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:1145. doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.01145Britch SC, Walsh SL.Treatment of opioid overdose: current approaches and recent advances.Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2022;239(7):2063-2081. doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06125-5Dydyk AM, Jain NK, Gupta M.Opioid Use Disorder. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; January 17, 2024.Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Fentanyl. October 2022.Kuczyńska K, Grzonkowski P, Kacprzak Ł, et al.Abuse of fentanyl: an emerging problem to face.Forensic Sci Int. 2018;289:207-214. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.042Comer SD, Cahill CM.Fentanyl: Receptor pharmacology, abuse potential, and implications for treatment.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;106:49-57. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.005Tanz LJ, Gladden RM, Dinwiddie AT, et al.Routes of drug use among drug overdose deaths - United States, 2020-2022.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2024;73(6):124-130. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7306a2U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Fentanyl citrate injection prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration prescribing information.DURAGESIC (fentanyl transdermal system), CII.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.ACTIQ® (fentanyl citrate) oral transmucosal lozenge prescribing information.Alhabardi S, Almodaimegh H, Alammari M.Pattern of hydromorphone use in King Abdulaziz Medical City-Central Region (KAMC-CR).Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):8760. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88276-7U.S. Food and Drug Administration.DILAUDID® (hydromorphone hydrochloride) oral solution prescribing information.Rodieux F, Ivanyuk A, Besson M, et al.Hydromorphone prescription for pain in children-what place in clinical practice?Front Pediatr. 2022;10:842454. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.842454Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Hydromorphone. April 2020.National Institute on Drug Abuse.Naloxone DrugFacts. January 2022.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first over-the-counter Naloxone nasal spray. March 2023.Vahedi HSM, Hajebi H, Vahidi E, et al.Comparison between intravenous morphine versus fentanyl in acute pain relief in drug abusers with acute limb traumatic injury.World J Emerg Med. 2019;10(1):27-32. doi:10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2019.01.004Kolli S, Friedman BW, Latev A, et al.A randomized study of intravenous hydromorphone versus intravenous acetaminophen for older adult patients with acute severe pain.Ann Emerg Med. 2022;80(5):432-439. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2022.06.016Ashar YK, Gordon A, Schubiner H, et al.Effect of pain reprocessing therapy vs placebo and usual care for patients with chronic back pain: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA Psychiatry. 2022;79(1):13-23. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2669Kelly RB, Willis J.Acupuncture for pain.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(2):89-96.Kim E, Raji MA, Westra J, et al.Comparative effectiveness of pain control between opioids and gabapentinoids in older patients with chronic pain.Pain. 2024;165(1):144-152. doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003006Kim S.The unsuspected threat of three opioid-like substitutes.Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2019;33(4):325-328. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2019.01.003Nicol AL, Hurley RW, Benzon HT.Alternatives to opioids in the pharmacologic management of chronic pain syndromes: a narrative review of randomized, controlled, and blinded clinical trials.Anesth Analg. 2017;125(5):1682-1703. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002426Ruoff GM.OTC analgesics vs opioids for pain management.J Fam Pract. 2022;71(6 Suppl):S29-S33. doi:10.12788/jfp.0418Paultre K, Cade W, Hernandez D, et al.Therapeutic effects of turmeric or curcumin extract on pain and function for individuals with knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review.BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2021;7(1):e000935. doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000935Yeo Y, Johnson R, Heng C.The public health approach to the worsening opioid crisis in the United States calls for harm reduction strategies to mitigate the harm from opioid addiction and overdose deaths.Mil Med. 2022;187(9-10):244-247. doi:10.1093/milmed/usab485Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fentanyl. August 2023.
27 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Pérez-Mañá C, Papaseit E, Fonseca F, et al.Drug interactions with new synthetic opioids.Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:1145. doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.01145Britch SC, Walsh SL.Treatment of opioid overdose: current approaches and recent advances.Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2022;239(7):2063-2081. doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06125-5Dydyk AM, Jain NK, Gupta M.Opioid Use Disorder. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; January 17, 2024.Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Fentanyl. October 2022.Kuczyńska K, Grzonkowski P, Kacprzak Ł, et al.Abuse of fentanyl: an emerging problem to face.Forensic Sci Int. 2018;289:207-214. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.042Comer SD, Cahill CM.Fentanyl: Receptor pharmacology, abuse potential, and implications for treatment.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;106:49-57. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.005Tanz LJ, Gladden RM, Dinwiddie AT, et al.Routes of drug use among drug overdose deaths - United States, 2020-2022.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2024;73(6):124-130. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7306a2U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Fentanyl citrate injection prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration prescribing information.DURAGESIC (fentanyl transdermal system), CII.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.ACTIQ® (fentanyl citrate) oral transmucosal lozenge prescribing information.Alhabardi S, Almodaimegh H, Alammari M.Pattern of hydromorphone use in King Abdulaziz Medical City-Central Region (KAMC-CR).Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):8760. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88276-7U.S. Food and Drug Administration.DILAUDID® (hydromorphone hydrochloride) oral solution prescribing information.Rodieux F, Ivanyuk A, Besson M, et al.Hydromorphone prescription for pain in children-what place in clinical practice?Front Pediatr. 2022;10:842454. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.842454Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Hydromorphone. April 2020.National Institute on Drug Abuse.Naloxone DrugFacts. January 2022.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first over-the-counter Naloxone nasal spray. March 2023.Vahedi HSM, Hajebi H, Vahidi E, et al.Comparison between intravenous morphine versus fentanyl in acute pain relief in drug abusers with acute limb traumatic injury.World J Emerg Med. 2019;10(1):27-32. doi:10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2019.01.004Kolli S, Friedman BW, Latev A, et al.A randomized study of intravenous hydromorphone versus intravenous acetaminophen for older adult patients with acute severe pain.Ann Emerg Med. 2022;80(5):432-439. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2022.06.016Ashar YK, Gordon A, Schubiner H, et al.Effect of pain reprocessing therapy vs placebo and usual care for patients with chronic back pain: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA Psychiatry. 2022;79(1):13-23. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2669Kelly RB, Willis J.Acupuncture for pain.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(2):89-96.Kim E, Raji MA, Westra J, et al.Comparative effectiveness of pain control between opioids and gabapentinoids in older patients with chronic pain.Pain. 2024;165(1):144-152. doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003006Kim S.The unsuspected threat of three opioid-like substitutes.Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2019;33(4):325-328. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2019.01.003Nicol AL, Hurley RW, Benzon HT.Alternatives to opioids in the pharmacologic management of chronic pain syndromes: a narrative review of randomized, controlled, and blinded clinical trials.Anesth Analg. 2017;125(5):1682-1703. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002426Ruoff GM.OTC analgesics vs opioids for pain management.J Fam Pract. 2022;71(6 Suppl):S29-S33. doi:10.12788/jfp.0418Paultre K, Cade W, Hernandez D, et al.Therapeutic effects of turmeric or curcumin extract on pain and function for individuals with knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review.BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2021;7(1):e000935. doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000935Yeo Y, Johnson R, Heng C.The public health approach to the worsening opioid crisis in the United States calls for harm reduction strategies to mitigate the harm from opioid addiction and overdose deaths.Mil Med. 2022;187(9-10):244-247. doi:10.1093/milmed/usab485Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fentanyl. August 2023.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Pérez-Mañá C, Papaseit E, Fonseca F, et al.Drug interactions with new synthetic opioids.Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:1145. doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.01145Britch SC, Walsh SL.Treatment of opioid overdose: current approaches and recent advances.Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2022;239(7):2063-2081. doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06125-5Dydyk AM, Jain NK, Gupta M.Opioid Use Disorder. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; January 17, 2024.Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Fentanyl. October 2022.Kuczyńska K, Grzonkowski P, Kacprzak Ł, et al.Abuse of fentanyl: an emerging problem to face.Forensic Sci Int. 2018;289:207-214. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.042Comer SD, Cahill CM.Fentanyl: Receptor pharmacology, abuse potential, and implications for treatment.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;106:49-57. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.005Tanz LJ, Gladden RM, Dinwiddie AT, et al.Routes of drug use among drug overdose deaths - United States, 2020-2022.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2024;73(6):124-130. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7306a2U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Fentanyl citrate injection prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration prescribing information.DURAGESIC (fentanyl transdermal system), CII.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.ACTIQ® (fentanyl citrate) oral transmucosal lozenge prescribing information.Alhabardi S, Almodaimegh H, Alammari M.Pattern of hydromorphone use in King Abdulaziz Medical City-Central Region (KAMC-CR).Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):8760. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88276-7U.S. Food and Drug Administration.DILAUDID® (hydromorphone hydrochloride) oral solution prescribing information.Rodieux F, Ivanyuk A, Besson M, et al.Hydromorphone prescription for pain in children-what place in clinical practice?Front Pediatr. 2022;10:842454. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.842454Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Hydromorphone. April 2020.National Institute on Drug Abuse.Naloxone DrugFacts. January 2022.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first over-the-counter Naloxone nasal spray. March 2023.Vahedi HSM, Hajebi H, Vahidi E, et al.Comparison between intravenous morphine versus fentanyl in acute pain relief in drug abusers with acute limb traumatic injury.World J Emerg Med. 2019;10(1):27-32. doi:10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2019.01.004Kolli S, Friedman BW, Latev A, et al.A randomized study of intravenous hydromorphone versus intravenous acetaminophen for older adult patients with acute severe pain.Ann Emerg Med. 2022;80(5):432-439. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2022.06.016Ashar YK, Gordon A, Schubiner H, et al.Effect of pain reprocessing therapy vs placebo and usual care for patients with chronic back pain: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA Psychiatry. 2022;79(1):13-23. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2669Kelly RB, Willis J.Acupuncture for pain.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(2):89-96.Kim E, Raji MA, Westra J, et al.Comparative effectiveness of pain control between opioids and gabapentinoids in older patients with chronic pain.Pain. 2024;165(1):144-152. doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003006Kim S.The unsuspected threat of three opioid-like substitutes.Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2019;33(4):325-328. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2019.01.003Nicol AL, Hurley RW, Benzon HT.Alternatives to opioids in the pharmacologic management of chronic pain syndromes: a narrative review of randomized, controlled, and blinded clinical trials.Anesth Analg. 2017;125(5):1682-1703. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002426Ruoff GM.OTC analgesics vs opioids for pain management.J Fam Pract. 2022;71(6 Suppl):S29-S33. doi:10.12788/jfp.0418Paultre K, Cade W, Hernandez D, et al.Therapeutic effects of turmeric or curcumin extract on pain and function for individuals with knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review.BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2021;7(1):e000935. doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000935Yeo Y, Johnson R, Heng C.The public health approach to the worsening opioid crisis in the United States calls for harm reduction strategies to mitigate the harm from opioid addiction and overdose deaths.Mil Med. 2022;187(9-10):244-247. doi:10.1093/milmed/usab485Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fentanyl. August 2023.
Pérez-Mañá C, Papaseit E, Fonseca F, et al.Drug interactions with new synthetic opioids.Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:1145. doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.01145
Britch SC, Walsh SL.Treatment of opioid overdose: current approaches and recent advances.Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2022;239(7):2063-2081. doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06125-5
Dydyk AM, Jain NK, Gupta M.Opioid Use Disorder. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; January 17, 2024.
Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Fentanyl. October 2022.
Kuczyńska K, Grzonkowski P, Kacprzak Ł, et al.Abuse of fentanyl: an emerging problem to face.Forensic Sci Int. 2018;289:207-214. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.042
Comer SD, Cahill CM.Fentanyl: Receptor pharmacology, abuse potential, and implications for treatment.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;106:49-57. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.005
Tanz LJ, Gladden RM, Dinwiddie AT, et al.Routes of drug use among drug overdose deaths - United States, 2020-2022.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2024;73(6):124-130. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7306a2
U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Fentanyl citrate injection prescribing information.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration prescribing information.DURAGESIC (fentanyl transdermal system), CII.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration.ACTIQ® (fentanyl citrate) oral transmucosal lozenge prescribing information.
Alhabardi S, Almodaimegh H, Alammari M.Pattern of hydromorphone use in King Abdulaziz Medical City-Central Region (KAMC-CR).Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):8760. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88276-7
U.S. Food and Drug Administration.DILAUDID® (hydromorphone hydrochloride) oral solution prescribing information.
Rodieux F, Ivanyuk A, Besson M, et al.Hydromorphone prescription for pain in children-what place in clinical practice?Front Pediatr. 2022;10:842454. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.842454
Department of Justice/ Drug Enforcement Administration Drug Fact Sheet.Hydromorphone. April 2020.
National Institute on Drug Abuse.Naloxone DrugFacts. January 2022.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first over-the-counter Naloxone nasal spray. March 2023.
Vahedi HSM, Hajebi H, Vahidi E, et al.Comparison between intravenous morphine versus fentanyl in acute pain relief in drug abusers with acute limb traumatic injury.World J Emerg Med. 2019;10(1):27-32. doi:10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2019.01.004
Kolli S, Friedman BW, Latev A, et al.A randomized study of intravenous hydromorphone versus intravenous acetaminophen for older adult patients with acute severe pain.Ann Emerg Med. 2022;80(5):432-439. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2022.06.016
Ashar YK, Gordon A, Schubiner H, et al.Effect of pain reprocessing therapy vs placebo and usual care for patients with chronic back pain: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA Psychiatry. 2022;79(1):13-23. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2669
Kelly RB, Willis J.Acupuncture for pain.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(2):89-96.
Kim E, Raji MA, Westra J, et al.Comparative effectiveness of pain control between opioids and gabapentinoids in older patients with chronic pain.Pain. 2024;165(1):144-152. doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003006
Kim S.The unsuspected threat of three opioid-like substitutes.Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2019;33(4):325-328. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2019.01.003
Nicol AL, Hurley RW, Benzon HT.Alternatives to opioids in the pharmacologic management of chronic pain syndromes: a narrative review of randomized, controlled, and blinded clinical trials.Anesth Analg. 2017;125(5):1682-1703. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002426
Ruoff GM.OTC analgesics vs opioids for pain management.J Fam Pract. 2022;71(6 Suppl):S29-S33. doi:10.12788/jfp.0418
Paultre K, Cade W, Hernandez D, et al.Therapeutic effects of turmeric or curcumin extract on pain and function for individuals with knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review.BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2021;7(1):e000935. doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000935
Yeo Y, Johnson R, Heng C.The public health approach to the worsening opioid crisis in the United States calls for harm reduction strategies to mitigate the harm from opioid addiction and overdose deaths.Mil Med. 2022;187(9-10):244-247. doi:10.1093/milmed/usab485
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fentanyl. August 2023.
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