Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhat Are Omega-3 Fatty Acids?What Foods High in Omega-3 Do for YouTop 10 Foods High in Omega 3BenefitsHow to UseOmega-3 SupplementsPotential Side Effects and ConsiderationsSafety
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
What Are Omega-3 Fatty Acids?
What Foods High in Omega-3 Do for You
Top 10 Foods High in Omega 3
Benefits
How to Use
Omega-3 Supplements
Potential Side Effects and Considerations
Safety
Omega-3s are a fat source mainly found in plant-based foods and fatty fish. Omega-3s are touted for their health benefits, namely their anti-inflammatory properties, which promote brain and heart health, among other effects.
Omega-3s must be acquired through food and are vital for normal cell function. Whether you strive to follow an anti-inflammatory diet or not, adding foods high in omega-3s to your eating pattern benefits heart health, mood, cognition, and joint pain.
The following article covers foods high in omega-3 fatty acids, their nutrition, benefits, and safety considerations.
Raw salmon fillet ready for cooking shot from above.filadendron / Getty Images
filadendron / Getty Images
Omega-3s arepolyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).PUFAsare long chains of carbon atoms with more than one double bond.
Omega-3 fatty acids are considered essential. The body cannot produce omega-3 fatty acids in sufficient quantities, so they must be obtained from food. Three types of omega-3s have been identified as particularly beneficial for health:eicosapentaenoic(EPA),docosahexaenoic(DHA), andalpha-linolenic acid(ALA).
The body can produce some EPA and DHA from ALA, though it requires a lot of energy. Unlike ALA, DHA and EPA are long-chain fatty acids. The body needs to modify ALA to produce EPA, which it can then convert to DHA. Only 5% of ALA is converted to EPA, and less than 0.5% becomes DHA.
Omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial because of their anti-inflammatory properties. They help maintain cell health and protect cells against damage.
Additionally, omega-3s formeicosanoids, signaling molecules important for cardiovascular andimmune function. Eicosanoids formed from omega-3s are anti-inflammatory.
Omega-3s support heart health. Research shows that replacing saturated fats with PUFAs positively affects lipids and protects against heart-related (cardiovascular) events.
A healthy brain and good cognition require strongbrain structureand function. Omega-3 fatty acids, especially DHA and EPA, are integral for brain cells to remain healthy and function properly. Additionally, molecules derived from omega-3s contribute to brainblood flowand increased oxygen levels.
Health issues such as elevatedblood sugaranddepressionalter brain structure. Omega-3s reduce the resultinginflammation. Moreover, research shows lower levels of omega-3s in people with psychiatric disorders such asbipolar depressionandschizophrenia.
Omega-3 fatty acids exist in plant- and animal-based foods. Animal sources have higher concentrations of EPA and DHA, whereasplant-basedfoods are predominantly ALA.
Some foods that are high in omega-3s include the following:
Benefits of Foods High in Omega-3
Much of the research on thehealth benefits of omega-3 fatty acidsuses supplements rather than real food. Research shows omega-3 fatty acids benefit the following outcomes:
Heart Health
Brain Health
Aging
Autoimmune Conditions
How to Consume Foods High in Omega-3
Omega-3 fatty acids offer countless health benefits. However, integrating omega-3-rich foods into your diet may feel daunting. Surprisingly, you can add many omega-3 foods to meals you already consume.
Plant-based omega-3 sources like walnuts, hemp seeds, chia, and flax seeds make greatoatmeal, salads, or toast toppings. Sprinkle hemp seeds on avocado toast for a nutrient boost. Try energy bites withseedsand walnuts.
Cannedfishis a healthy alternative to cooking raw salmon, mackerel, or sardines. Open a can and add it to salads, grain bowls, pasta, or toast for protein and omega-3s. Mash canned fish withherbs,olive oil, and other seasoning to create a fish salad.
Plan fish for dinner. The American Heart Association recommends eating fatty fish twice weekly forheart health.Bake, sauté, or grill fish for a quick weeknight dinner.
Most people in the United States do not consume enough fish to meet omega-3 requirements, so obtaining enough omega-3 from food alone can be challenging. Supplements serve as an effective way to ensure adequate omega-3 intake.
Supplements contain a concentrateddosage of omega-3s. Supplement dosage varies depending on the condition requiring omega-3s.
Research recommends at least 1 g daily of EPA or a two-to-one combination of EPA and DHA for mental health-related benefits.
The American Heart Association (AHA) states that doses of 4 g daily appear effective and safe for reducing triglyceride levels regardless of the use of other lipid-lowering medications.
However, studies evaluating omega-3 supplements for heart health report mixed results with dosages ranging from 0.5 g to more than 5 g daily.Research suggests that more than 1 g of omega-3 supplements daily is required for cardiovascular benefits.
Still, the Institute of Medicine established adequate intake (AI) recommendations for omega-3s. Its AI for omega-3s is as follows:
Many supplements contain far more omega-3s than the AI recommends.
Omega-3 supplementation is not without risk.
Research suggests an increased risk of bleeding with doses greater than 3 g daily.According to one meta-analysis, taking supplements that have more than 1 g of omega-3s increases the risk ofatrial fibrillation(irregular heartbeats).
Additionally,side effects of high-dose supplementationof omega-3s include the following:
People takinganticoagulantslikewarfarinshould exercise care with omega-3 supplements, which can delay blood clotting. Although omega-3 supplements in dosages of 3 g to 6 g daily do not appear to impact clotting, people on anticoagulants should remain cautious.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate supplements like prescription drugs. This means some supplement products may not contain what the label says. Whenchoosing a supplement, look for independently tested products and consult a healthcare provider, registered dietitian nutritionist (RDN or RD), or pharmacist.
Safety Considerations
Avoid omega-3s if you’re allergic to it or its components. Seek immediate medical attention if you have asevere allergic reaction(itching, hives, shortness of breath).
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers omega-3 supplements that have up to 5 g of EPA and DHA safe to take daily. Food sources of omega-3s can be consumed regularly as part of a healthy diet. However, people should be mindful ofmercuryin king mackerel, tilefish, swordfish, and shark.
Omega-3 supplements are recommended for infant visual and brain development duringpregnancyandbreastfeeding. Likewise, eating at least 8 ounces of fatty fish weekly is encouraged during pregnancy. However, people who are pregnant should avoid fish that are high in mercury, like king mackerel.
Summary
Eating foods that are rich in omega-3s is associated with health benefits such as reduced triglyceride levels and improved brain health.
Adding more foods that are rich in omega-3s to your diet will likely not harm you. They are also potent sources of other beneficial nutrients necessary for health, like calcium and vitamin D.
Start small if you’re unsure where to incorporate more omega-3-rich foods. Add one omega-3 source to one weekly meal, slowly increasing this to two meals a week, and then go from there.
30 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Santos HO, Price JC, Bueno AA.Beyond fish oil supplementation: the effects of alternative plant sources of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids upon lipid indexes and cardiometabolic biomarkers—an overview.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3159. doi:10.3390/nu12103159National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.von Schacky C.Importance of EPA and DHA blood levels in brain structure and function.Nutrients. 2021;13(4):1074. doi:10.3390/nu13041074U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, wild, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, chia seeds, dried.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Flaxseeds, ground.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Nuts, walnuts, dry roasted, with salt added.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, hemp seed, hulled.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, mackerel, Atlantic, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish oil, cod liver.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin A and carotenoids.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Soybeans, mature seeds, raw.Zhang X, Ritonja JA, Zhou N, et al.Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids intake and blood pressure: a dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11(11):e025071. doi:10.1161/JAHA.121.025071Jiang L, Wang J, Xiong K, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2342. doi:10.3390/nu13072342Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403Aung T, Halsey J, Kromhout D, et al.Associations of omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: meta-analysis of 10 trials involving 77 917 individuals.JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(3):225-234. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2017.5205Bernasconi AA, Wiest MM, Lavie CJ, et al.Effect of omega-3 dosage on cardiovascular outcomes: an updated meta-analysis and meta-regression of interventional trials.Mayo Clin Proc. 2021;96(2):304-313. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.08.034Wei BZ, Li L, Dong CW, et al.The relationship of omega-3 fatty acids with dementia and cognitive decline: evidence from prospective cohort studies of supplementation, dietary intake, and blood markers.Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;117(6):1096-1109. doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.001Guu TW, Mischoulon D, Sarris J, et al.International society for nutritional psychiatry research practice guidelines for omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of major depressive disorder.Psychother Psychosom. 2019;88(5):263-273. doi:10.1159/000502652Yurko-Mauro K, Alexander DD, Van Elswyk ME.Docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0120391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120391Huang YH, Chiu WC, Hsu YP, et al.Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on muscle mass, muscle strength and muscle performance among the elderly: a meta-analysis.Nutrients. 2020;12(12):3739. doi:10.3390/nu12123739Mathieu S, Soubrier M, Peirs C, et al.A meta-analysis of the impact of nutritional supplementation on osteoarthritis symptoms.Nutrients. 2022;14(8):1607. doi:10.3390/nu14081607Deng W, Yi Z, Yin E, et al.Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis.J Orthop Surg Res. 2023;18(1):381. doi:10.1186/s13018-023-03855-wGioxari A, Kaliora AC, Marantidou F, et al.Intake of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Nutrition. 2018;45:114-124.e4. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2017.06.023American Heart Association.Fish and omega-3 fatty acids.Gencer B, Djousse L, Al-Ramady OT, et al.Effect of long-term marine ɷ-3 fatty acids supplementation on the risk of atrial fibrillation in randomized controlled trials of cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Circulation. 2021;144(25):1981-1990. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055654
30 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Santos HO, Price JC, Bueno AA.Beyond fish oil supplementation: the effects of alternative plant sources of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids upon lipid indexes and cardiometabolic biomarkers—an overview.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3159. doi:10.3390/nu12103159National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.von Schacky C.Importance of EPA and DHA blood levels in brain structure and function.Nutrients. 2021;13(4):1074. doi:10.3390/nu13041074U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, wild, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, chia seeds, dried.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Flaxseeds, ground.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Nuts, walnuts, dry roasted, with salt added.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, hemp seed, hulled.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, mackerel, Atlantic, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish oil, cod liver.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin A and carotenoids.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Soybeans, mature seeds, raw.Zhang X, Ritonja JA, Zhou N, et al.Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids intake and blood pressure: a dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11(11):e025071. doi:10.1161/JAHA.121.025071Jiang L, Wang J, Xiong K, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2342. doi:10.3390/nu13072342Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403Aung T, Halsey J, Kromhout D, et al.Associations of omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: meta-analysis of 10 trials involving 77 917 individuals.JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(3):225-234. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2017.5205Bernasconi AA, Wiest MM, Lavie CJ, et al.Effect of omega-3 dosage on cardiovascular outcomes: an updated meta-analysis and meta-regression of interventional trials.Mayo Clin Proc. 2021;96(2):304-313. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.08.034Wei BZ, Li L, Dong CW, et al.The relationship of omega-3 fatty acids with dementia and cognitive decline: evidence from prospective cohort studies of supplementation, dietary intake, and blood markers.Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;117(6):1096-1109. doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.001Guu TW, Mischoulon D, Sarris J, et al.International society for nutritional psychiatry research practice guidelines for omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of major depressive disorder.Psychother Psychosom. 2019;88(5):263-273. doi:10.1159/000502652Yurko-Mauro K, Alexander DD, Van Elswyk ME.Docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0120391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120391Huang YH, Chiu WC, Hsu YP, et al.Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on muscle mass, muscle strength and muscle performance among the elderly: a meta-analysis.Nutrients. 2020;12(12):3739. doi:10.3390/nu12123739Mathieu S, Soubrier M, Peirs C, et al.A meta-analysis of the impact of nutritional supplementation on osteoarthritis symptoms.Nutrients. 2022;14(8):1607. doi:10.3390/nu14081607Deng W, Yi Z, Yin E, et al.Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis.J Orthop Surg Res. 2023;18(1):381. doi:10.1186/s13018-023-03855-wGioxari A, Kaliora AC, Marantidou F, et al.Intake of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Nutrition. 2018;45:114-124.e4. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2017.06.023American Heart Association.Fish and omega-3 fatty acids.Gencer B, Djousse L, Al-Ramady OT, et al.Effect of long-term marine ɷ-3 fatty acids supplementation on the risk of atrial fibrillation in randomized controlled trials of cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Circulation. 2021;144(25):1981-1990. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055654
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Santos HO, Price JC, Bueno AA.Beyond fish oil supplementation: the effects of alternative plant sources of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids upon lipid indexes and cardiometabolic biomarkers—an overview.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3159. doi:10.3390/nu12103159National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.von Schacky C.Importance of EPA and DHA blood levels in brain structure and function.Nutrients. 2021;13(4):1074. doi:10.3390/nu13041074U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, wild, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, chia seeds, dried.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Flaxseeds, ground.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Nuts, walnuts, dry roasted, with salt added.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, hemp seed, hulled.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, mackerel, Atlantic, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish oil, cod liver.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin A and carotenoids.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt.U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Soybeans, mature seeds, raw.Zhang X, Ritonja JA, Zhou N, et al.Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids intake and blood pressure: a dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11(11):e025071. doi:10.1161/JAHA.121.025071Jiang L, Wang J, Xiong K, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2342. doi:10.3390/nu13072342Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403Aung T, Halsey J, Kromhout D, et al.Associations of omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: meta-analysis of 10 trials involving 77 917 individuals.JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(3):225-234. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2017.5205Bernasconi AA, Wiest MM, Lavie CJ, et al.Effect of omega-3 dosage on cardiovascular outcomes: an updated meta-analysis and meta-regression of interventional trials.Mayo Clin Proc. 2021;96(2):304-313. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.08.034Wei BZ, Li L, Dong CW, et al.The relationship of omega-3 fatty acids with dementia and cognitive decline: evidence from prospective cohort studies of supplementation, dietary intake, and blood markers.Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;117(6):1096-1109. doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.001Guu TW, Mischoulon D, Sarris J, et al.International society for nutritional psychiatry research practice guidelines for omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of major depressive disorder.Psychother Psychosom. 2019;88(5):263-273. doi:10.1159/000502652Yurko-Mauro K, Alexander DD, Van Elswyk ME.Docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0120391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120391Huang YH, Chiu WC, Hsu YP, et al.Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on muscle mass, muscle strength and muscle performance among the elderly: a meta-analysis.Nutrients. 2020;12(12):3739. doi:10.3390/nu12123739Mathieu S, Soubrier M, Peirs C, et al.A meta-analysis of the impact of nutritional supplementation on osteoarthritis symptoms.Nutrients. 2022;14(8):1607. doi:10.3390/nu14081607Deng W, Yi Z, Yin E, et al.Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis.J Orthop Surg Res. 2023;18(1):381. doi:10.1186/s13018-023-03855-wGioxari A, Kaliora AC, Marantidou F, et al.Intake of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Nutrition. 2018;45:114-124.e4. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2017.06.023American Heart Association.Fish and omega-3 fatty acids.Gencer B, Djousse L, Al-Ramady OT, et al.Effect of long-term marine ɷ-3 fatty acids supplementation on the risk of atrial fibrillation in randomized controlled trials of cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Circulation. 2021;144(25):1981-1990. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055654
Santos HO, Price JC, Bueno AA.Beyond fish oil supplementation: the effects of alternative plant sources of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids upon lipid indexes and cardiometabolic biomarkers—an overview.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3159. doi:10.3390/nu12103159
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.
von Schacky C.Importance of EPA and DHA blood levels in brain structure and function.Nutrients. 2021;13(4):1074. doi:10.3390/nu13041074
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, wild, raw.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, chia seeds, dried.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Flaxseeds, ground.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Nuts, walnuts, dry roasted, with salt added.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil, drained solids with bone.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Seeds, hemp seed, hulled.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish, mackerel, Atlantic, raw.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Fish oil, cod liver.
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin A and carotenoids.
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Spinach, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt.
U.S. Department of Agriculture FoodData Central.Soybeans, mature seeds, raw.
Zhang X, Ritonja JA, Zhou N, et al.Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids intake and blood pressure: a dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11(11):e025071. doi:10.1161/JAHA.121.025071
Jiang L, Wang J, Xiong K, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2342. doi:10.3390/nu13072342
Abdelhamid AS, Brown TJ, Brainard JS, et al.Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3(3):CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5
Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al.Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer.N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):23-32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1811403
Aung T, Halsey J, Kromhout D, et al.Associations of omega-3 fatty acid supplement use with cardiovascular disease risks: meta-analysis of 10 trials involving 77 917 individuals.JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(3):225-234. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2017.5205
Bernasconi AA, Wiest MM, Lavie CJ, et al.Effect of omega-3 dosage on cardiovascular outcomes: an updated meta-analysis and meta-regression of interventional trials.Mayo Clin Proc. 2021;96(2):304-313. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.08.034
Wei BZ, Li L, Dong CW, et al.The relationship of omega-3 fatty acids with dementia and cognitive decline: evidence from prospective cohort studies of supplementation, dietary intake, and blood markers.Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;117(6):1096-1109. doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.001
Guu TW, Mischoulon D, Sarris J, et al.International society for nutritional psychiatry research practice guidelines for omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of major depressive disorder.Psychother Psychosom. 2019;88(5):263-273. doi:10.1159/000502652
Yurko-Mauro K, Alexander DD, Van Elswyk ME.Docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(3):e0120391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120391
Huang YH, Chiu WC, Hsu YP, et al.Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on muscle mass, muscle strength and muscle performance among the elderly: a meta-analysis.Nutrients. 2020;12(12):3739. doi:10.3390/nu12123739
Mathieu S, Soubrier M, Peirs C, et al.A meta-analysis of the impact of nutritional supplementation on osteoarthritis symptoms.Nutrients. 2022;14(8):1607. doi:10.3390/nu14081607
Deng W, Yi Z, Yin E, et al.Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis.J Orthop Surg Res. 2023;18(1):381. doi:10.1186/s13018-023-03855-w
Gioxari A, Kaliora AC, Marantidou F, et al.Intake of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Nutrition. 2018;45:114-124.e4. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2017.06.023
American Heart Association.Fish and omega-3 fatty acids.
Gencer B, Djousse L, Al-Ramady OT, et al.Effect of long-term marine ɷ-3 fatty acids supplementation on the risk of atrial fibrillation in randomized controlled trials of cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Circulation. 2021;144(25):1981-1990. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.121.055654
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