Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhat Is HIV-1?DiagnosisCausesStagesSymptomsTreatmentPreventionCopingRisksFrequently Asked Questions
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
What Is HIV-1?
Diagnosis
Causes
Stages
Symptoms
Treatment
Prevention
Coping
Risks
Frequently Asked Questions
If you have been diagnosed withHIV, you will have more likely than not been infected with HIV-1. HIV-1 is one of two types of the virus, along with HIV-2, circulating around the world today.
As more and more of these cells are killed, the body becomes increasingly unable to defend itself against otherwise harmless infections, referred to asopportunistic infections.
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But there are key differences between HIV-1 and HIV-2. This article takes a closer look at those differences and provides insights into how the virus is diagnosed, transmitted, and treated. It also explains how HIV progresses in stages and the symptoms it can cause as theimmune systemis gradually depleted of its defensive cells.
HIV-1 is the most common strain of the virus responsible for the majority of HIV infections worldwide.It is the predominant strain because it is far more infectious (able to be spread) and virulent (able to overcome the body’s immune defenses) than HIV-2.As of 2020, less than 0.1% of all HIV infections are attributed to HIV-2.
Geneticists have traced the origin of HIV-1 to chimpanzees and gorillas in western Africa.By contrast, HIV-2 has been traced to thesooty mangabey, a monkey species also found in western Africa.As incidental as these genetic differences may seem, HIV-2 is far less infectious and virulent than HIV-1 and, as a result, is mainly confined to West Africa.
HIV-1 is also far morepathogenic(able to cause disease) than HIV-2. An HIV-1 infection tends to progress faster and is linked to a highermortality rateoverall. Even so, the majority of people with HIV-1 or HIV-2 will die due to the complications of the conditions if left untreated.
Recap
How HIV-1 Differs From HIV-2
HIV is typically diagnosed withblood teststhat detect one of two things:
Fourth-generation tests detect both HIV antibodies and antigens. Apositive resultfrom acombination HIV antibody-antigen testis confirmed with another test known as awestern blot. Together, these tests are extremely accurate in diagnosing HIV.
Generally speaking, the majority of people infected with HIV today are presumed to have HIV-1. However, if there are any indications a person may have been infected with HIV-2, a test called the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test is able to differentiate between the two.
Differential testing is generally considered when a person is of West African descent or a person has risk factors for HIV-2 (such as travel to West Africa with no response to HIV treatment).
Differential testing may also be considered if lab-based algorithms (mathematical calculations) indicate an increased likelihood of HIV-2 based on the results of combination antibody-antigen tests.
RecapHIV-1 can be differentiated from HIV-2 with a test called the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test. Differential testing is considered when a person either has risk factors for HIV-2 or when combination HIV test results are suggestive of HIV-2 based on lab-based algorithms.
HIV-1 can be differentiated from HIV-2 with a test called the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test. Differential testing is considered when a person either has risk factors for HIV-2 or when combination HIV test results are suggestive of HIV-2 based on lab-based algorithms.
How HIV Is Diagnosed
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is passed (transmitted) from one person to the next through body fluids, including semen, blood, vaginal secretions, and breast milk.The causes of HIV-1 are the same as for HIV-2.
The primaryroutes of HIV transmissionare:
Rare to unlikely causes of HIV transmission includeoral sex(due to enzymes in saliva that neutralize the virus) andblood transfusions(due to the routine screening of the U.S. blood supply).
Anal sex and vaginal sex are the most common routes of HIV infection in most countries, including the United States.However, in Russia and parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, shared needles are the predominant route due to high rates of injection drug use.
You cannot get HIV from touching, kissing, sharing utensils, mosquitos, or toilet seats.
RecapHIV is mainly transmitted through contact with body fluids during anal sex or vaginal sex. It can also be passed through shared needles, through occupational blood exposure, or to a child during pregnancy or breastfeeding.
HIV is mainly transmitted through contact with body fluids during anal sex or vaginal sex. It can also be passed through shared needles, through occupational blood exposure, or to a child during pregnancy or breastfeeding.
Cause and Risk Factors of HIV
HIV progresses in stages as the virus gradually kills off CD4 T cells, leaving the body increasingly vulnerable to opportunistic infections.
While HIV-1 and HIV-2 both work in the same way, HIV-1 is far more efficient at killing these defensive T cells. Compared to HIV-2, the amount of virus produced during the early stages of HIV-1 infection is between 10 and 28 times greater. This higher level of viral activity translates to a faster rate of T cell depletion and disease progression.
An HIV infection, whether HIV-1 or HIV-2, is divided into three stages:
RecapHIV infection is divided into three stages: the acute stage (the period immediately following exposure to the virus), the chronic stage (a period of low disease activity that can often last 10 years or more), and AIDS (the most advanced stage of infection).
HIV infection is divided into three stages: the acute stage (the period immediately following exposure to the virus), the chronic stage (a period of low disease activity that can often last 10 years or more), and AIDS (the most advanced stage of infection).
How Quickly Can HIV Progress to AIDS?
People with HIV-1 are vulnerable to the same illnesses as those with HIV-2, although they tend to develop sooner. Some conditions, like HIV-associated kidney disease, are common in people with advanced HIV-1 infection but not HIV-2.
If taken as prescribed, antiretroviral therapy can suppress the virus to undetectable levels where it can do the body little harm. The drugs do not “cure” HIV but rather keep the virus fully suppressed.
There are differentclasses of antiretroviral drugsused in combination HIV therapy. Each is named after the stage in the life cycle it blocks:
Today, there are more than 25 different antiretroviral drugs approved for use in the United States and 22 fixed-dose combination drugs, some of which allow for once-daily dosing with only a single tablet.
In 2021, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first once-monthly injectable therapy,Cabenuva, comprised of the antiretroviral drugs cabotegravir and rilpivirine. Cabenuva can suppress the virus as effectively as daily oral therapies with just two injections per month.
Because antiretrovirals were designed to treat HIV-1, the predominant strain, some are less effective in treating HIV-2. This includes NNRTIs, which HIV-2 appears largely resistant to.
RecapHIV-1 is treated with a combination of antiretroviral drugs that prevent the virus from replicating. There are over 25 individual antiretroviral drugs approved for use in the United States as well as 22 fixed-dose combination tablets comprised of two or more antiretrovirals.
HIV-1 is treated with a combination of antiretroviral drugs that prevent the virus from replicating. There are over 25 individual antiretroviral drugs approved for use in the United States as well as 22 fixed-dose combination tablets comprised of two or more antiretrovirals.
How HIV Is Treated
The traditional strategies of HIV prevention—including theconsistent use of condomsand a reduction in the number of sex partners—remain key to avoiding the spread of HIV.
But there are two newer methods of prevention that are extremely effective if you want to avoid getting HIV or passing the virus to others:
Despite their effectiveness in preventing HIV, neither PrEP nor TasP can prevent other sexually transmitted diseases (some of which mayincrease the risk of HIV transmission).
In addition, if you have been accidentally exposed to HIV (either through condomless sex or shared needles), you may be able to avert the infection with a 28-day course of antiretroviral drugs, referred to aspost-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).
8 Simple Steps to Prevent HIV
Being diagnosed with HIV can be life-changing, but with consistent care and treatment, people living with the disease can expect to live long, healthy lives. Learning to cope is essential as it influences your ability to remain in care and take your pills every day as prescribed.
Coping and Living Well With HIV
Certain factors can increase a person’s risk of getting or transmitting HIV. Some of the factors are physiological (pertaining to the body), while others are related to sexual practices. Social, cultural, racial, and economic factors also contribute.
Among the risk factors that can compound a person’s odds of infection are:
RecapCondomless sex, shared needles, and having an STI can all increase a person’s risk of getting or passing HIV. Social factors like HIV stigma can often discourage people from seeking testing or treatment, while poverty not only limits a person’s access to health care but also to preventive interventions like PrEP or addiction treatment.
Condomless sex, shared needles, and having an STI can all increase a person’s risk of getting or passing HIV. Social factors like HIV stigma can often discourage people from seeking testing or treatment, while poverty not only limits a person’s access to health care but also to preventive interventions like PrEP or addiction treatment.
The High Risk of Gay Black Men Getting HIV
Summary
HIV-1 is the predominant strain of HIV in the world today, accounting for 99% of all new infections. HIV-1 is not only more virulent but is also associated with faster disease progression than its cousin, HIV-2.
HIV-1 also differs in its genetic origins. Whereas HIV-2 is believed to have originated from the sooty mangabey monkey, HIV-1 is thought to have made the leap from chimpanzees and apes to humans.
HIV-1 can be differentiated from HIV-2 using a blood test called the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test. While the symptoms and stages of HIV-1 are the same as for HIV-2, they tend to develop sooner. The modes of transmission are exactly alike.
Condoms and a reduction in sex partners are also important preventive tools. Identifying your vulnerabilities to HIV (such as condomless sex or shared needles) allows you to take steps to minimize your risk.
A Word From Verywell
While the chances are good that if you have HIV, you have HIV-1, you should advise your doctor if you have any risk factors for HIV-2. This includes being of West African origin, living in or traveling through West Africa, or having sex or sharing needles with someone with risk factors for HIV-2.
Although combination antibody-antigen tests are pretty good a predicting the odds of HIV-2 infection, they are not infallible. By letting your doctor know about your risk of HIV-2, you can undergo differential testing and be placed on medications that may be more effective if you do have this uncommon HIV type.
Frequently Asked QuestionsHIV-1 accounts for the vast majority of infections worldwide and is more transmissible and virulent than HIV-2. HIV-2 is less transmissible and virulent and mainly confined to West Africa. With HIV-1, the progression of the disease tends to be faster and the symptoms more severe.Learn MoreWhat Are the Genetic Origins of HIV?
HIV-1 accounts for the vast majority of infections worldwide and is more transmissible and virulent than HIV-2. HIV-2 is less transmissible and virulent and mainly confined to West Africa. With HIV-1, the progression of the disease tends to be faster and the symptoms more severe.Learn MoreWhat Are the Genetic Origins of HIV?
HIV-1 accounts for the vast majority of infections worldwide and is more transmissible and virulent than HIV-2. HIV-2 is less transmissible and virulent and mainly confined to West Africa. With HIV-1, the progression of the disease tends to be faster and the symptoms more severe.
Learn MoreWhat Are the Genetic Origins of HIV?
29 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Fettig J, Swaminathan M, Murrill CS, Kaplan JE.Global epidemiology of HIV.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2014;28(3):323–37. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.05.001Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol.2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol. 2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al.Trends in HIV-2 diagnoses and use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation test — United States, 2010-2017.MMWR Morbid Mortality Week Rep.2020;69(3):63-6. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6903a2D’arc M, Ayouba A, Esteban A. et al.Origin of the HIV-1 group O epidemic in western lowland gorillas.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.2015;112(11) E1343–52. doi:10.1073/pnas.1502022112Kapoor AK, Padival S.HIV-2. In:StatPearls [Internet].Tampa, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2021.National Institutes of Health.HIV testing overview.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV transmission.HIV.gov.How do you get or transmit HIV?Jolley E, Rhodes T, Platt L, et al.HIV among people who inject drugs in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia: a systematic review with implications for policy.BMJ Open.2012;2:e001465. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001465Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Ways HIV is not transmitted.Esbjörnsson J, Jansson M, Jesperse S, et al.HIV-2 as a model to identify a functional HIV cure.AIDS Res Ther.2019;16:24. doi:10.1186/s12981-019-0239-xNational Institutes of Health.The stages of HIV infection.Braun DL, Kouyos RD, Balmer B, Grube C, Weber R, Günthard HF.Frequency and spectrum of unexpected clinical manifestations of primary HIV-1 infection.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(6):1013-21. doi:h10.1093/cid/civ398National HIV Curriculum.Acute and recent HIV infection.Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.AIDS -defining conditions.Arts EJ, Hazuda DJ.HIV-1 antiretroviral drug therapy.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(4):a007161. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a007161Department of Health and Human Services.FDA-approved HIV medications.Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first extended-release, injectable drug regimen for adults living with HIV.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How effective is PrEP?Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About PrEP.Rodger A., Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al.Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study.Lancet.2019;pii:S0140-6736(19)30418-0. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30418-0Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.STDs and HIV.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).Carias AM, Hope TJ.Barriers of mucosal entry of HIV/SIV.Curr Immunol Rev.2019;15(1):4–13. doi:10.2174/1573395514666180604084404HIV.gov.Who is at risk of HIV?Rivera AV, DeCuir J, Crawford NC, Amesty S, Harripersaud K, Lewis CF.Factors associated with HIV stigma and the impact of a nonrandomized multi-component video aimed at reducing HIV stigma among a high-risk population in New York City,AIDS Care. 2015;27(6):772-6. doi:10.1080/09540121.2014.998611Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI.Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States.Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27(4):238-43. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2017.02.003
29 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Fettig J, Swaminathan M, Murrill CS, Kaplan JE.Global epidemiology of HIV.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2014;28(3):323–37. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.05.001Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol.2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol. 2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al.Trends in HIV-2 diagnoses and use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation test — United States, 2010-2017.MMWR Morbid Mortality Week Rep.2020;69(3):63-6. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6903a2D’arc M, Ayouba A, Esteban A. et al.Origin of the HIV-1 group O epidemic in western lowland gorillas.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.2015;112(11) E1343–52. doi:10.1073/pnas.1502022112Kapoor AK, Padival S.HIV-2. In:StatPearls [Internet].Tampa, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2021.National Institutes of Health.HIV testing overview.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV transmission.HIV.gov.How do you get or transmit HIV?Jolley E, Rhodes T, Platt L, et al.HIV among people who inject drugs in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia: a systematic review with implications for policy.BMJ Open.2012;2:e001465. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001465Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Ways HIV is not transmitted.Esbjörnsson J, Jansson M, Jesperse S, et al.HIV-2 as a model to identify a functional HIV cure.AIDS Res Ther.2019;16:24. doi:10.1186/s12981-019-0239-xNational Institutes of Health.The stages of HIV infection.Braun DL, Kouyos RD, Balmer B, Grube C, Weber R, Günthard HF.Frequency and spectrum of unexpected clinical manifestations of primary HIV-1 infection.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(6):1013-21. doi:h10.1093/cid/civ398National HIV Curriculum.Acute and recent HIV infection.Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.AIDS -defining conditions.Arts EJ, Hazuda DJ.HIV-1 antiretroviral drug therapy.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(4):a007161. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a007161Department of Health and Human Services.FDA-approved HIV medications.Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first extended-release, injectable drug regimen for adults living with HIV.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How effective is PrEP?Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About PrEP.Rodger A., Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al.Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study.Lancet.2019;pii:S0140-6736(19)30418-0. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30418-0Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.STDs and HIV.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).Carias AM, Hope TJ.Barriers of mucosal entry of HIV/SIV.Curr Immunol Rev.2019;15(1):4–13. doi:10.2174/1573395514666180604084404HIV.gov.Who is at risk of HIV?Rivera AV, DeCuir J, Crawford NC, Amesty S, Harripersaud K, Lewis CF.Factors associated with HIV stigma and the impact of a nonrandomized multi-component video aimed at reducing HIV stigma among a high-risk population in New York City,AIDS Care. 2015;27(6):772-6. doi:10.1080/09540121.2014.998611Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI.Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States.Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27(4):238-43. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2017.02.003
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Fettig J, Swaminathan M, Murrill CS, Kaplan JE.Global epidemiology of HIV.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2014;28(3):323–37. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.05.001Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol.2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol. 2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al.Trends in HIV-2 diagnoses and use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation test — United States, 2010-2017.MMWR Morbid Mortality Week Rep.2020;69(3):63-6. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6903a2D’arc M, Ayouba A, Esteban A. et al.Origin of the HIV-1 group O epidemic in western lowland gorillas.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.2015;112(11) E1343–52. doi:10.1073/pnas.1502022112Kapoor AK, Padival S.HIV-2. In:StatPearls [Internet].Tampa, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2021.National Institutes of Health.HIV testing overview.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV transmission.HIV.gov.How do you get or transmit HIV?Jolley E, Rhodes T, Platt L, et al.HIV among people who inject drugs in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia: a systematic review with implications for policy.BMJ Open.2012;2:e001465. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001465Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Ways HIV is not transmitted.Esbjörnsson J, Jansson M, Jesperse S, et al.HIV-2 as a model to identify a functional HIV cure.AIDS Res Ther.2019;16:24. doi:10.1186/s12981-019-0239-xNational Institutes of Health.The stages of HIV infection.Braun DL, Kouyos RD, Balmer B, Grube C, Weber R, Günthard HF.Frequency and spectrum of unexpected clinical manifestations of primary HIV-1 infection.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(6):1013-21. doi:h10.1093/cid/civ398National HIV Curriculum.Acute and recent HIV infection.Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.AIDS -defining conditions.Arts EJ, Hazuda DJ.HIV-1 antiretroviral drug therapy.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(4):a007161. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a007161Department of Health and Human Services.FDA-approved HIV medications.Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first extended-release, injectable drug regimen for adults living with HIV.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How effective is PrEP?Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About PrEP.Rodger A., Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al.Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study.Lancet.2019;pii:S0140-6736(19)30418-0. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30418-0Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.STDs and HIV.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).Carias AM, Hope TJ.Barriers of mucosal entry of HIV/SIV.Curr Immunol Rev.2019;15(1):4–13. doi:10.2174/1573395514666180604084404HIV.gov.Who is at risk of HIV?Rivera AV, DeCuir J, Crawford NC, Amesty S, Harripersaud K, Lewis CF.Factors associated with HIV stigma and the impact of a nonrandomized multi-component video aimed at reducing HIV stigma among a high-risk population in New York City,AIDS Care. 2015;27(6):772-6. doi:10.1080/09540121.2014.998611Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI.Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States.Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27(4):238-43. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2017.02.003
Fettig J, Swaminathan M, Murrill CS, Kaplan JE.Global epidemiology of HIV.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2014;28(3):323–37. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.05.001
Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol.2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739
Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC.Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis.Rev Med Virol. 2013;23(4):221-40. doi:10.1002/rmv.1739
Peruski AH, Wesolowski LG, Delaney KP, et al.Trends in HIV-2 diagnoses and use of the HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation test — United States, 2010-2017.MMWR Morbid Mortality Week Rep.2020;69(3):63-6. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6903a2
D’arc M, Ayouba A, Esteban A. et al.Origin of the HIV-1 group O epidemic in western lowland gorillas.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.2015;112(11) E1343–52. doi:10.1073/pnas.1502022112
Kapoor AK, Padival S.HIV-2. In:StatPearls [Internet].Tampa, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2021.
National Institutes of Health.HIV testing overview.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV transmission.
HIV.gov.How do you get or transmit HIV?
Jolley E, Rhodes T, Platt L, et al.HIV among people who inject drugs in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia: a systematic review with implications for policy.BMJ Open.2012;2:e001465. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001465
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Ways HIV is not transmitted.
Esbjörnsson J, Jansson M, Jesperse S, et al.HIV-2 as a model to identify a functional HIV cure.AIDS Res Ther.2019;16:24. doi:10.1186/s12981-019-0239-x
National Institutes of Health.The stages of HIV infection.
Braun DL, Kouyos RD, Balmer B, Grube C, Weber R, Günthard HF.Frequency and spectrum of unexpected clinical manifestations of primary HIV-1 infection.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(6):1013-21. doi:h10.1093/cid/civ398
National HIV Curriculum.Acute and recent HIV infection.
Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.AIDS -defining conditions.
Arts EJ, Hazuda DJ.HIV-1 antiretroviral drug therapy.Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(4):a007161. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a007161
Department of Health and Human Services.FDA-approved HIV medications.
Food and Drug Administration.FDA approves first extended-release, injectable drug regimen for adults living with HIV.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How effective is PrEP?
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About PrEP.
Rodger A., Cambiano V, Bruun T, et al.Risk of HIV transmission through condomless sex in serodifferent gay couples with the HIV-positive partner taking suppressive antiretroviral therapy (PARTNER): final results of a multicentre, prospective, observational study.Lancet.2019;pii:S0140-6736(19)30418-0. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30418-0
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.STDs and HIV.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP).
Carias AM, Hope TJ.Barriers of mucosal entry of HIV/SIV.Curr Immunol Rev.2019;15(1):4–13. doi:10.2174/1573395514666180604084404
HIV.gov.Who is at risk of HIV?
Rivera AV, DeCuir J, Crawford NC, Amesty S, Harripersaud K, Lewis CF.Factors associated with HIV stigma and the impact of a nonrandomized multi-component video aimed at reducing HIV stigma among a high-risk population in New York City,AIDS Care. 2015;27(6):772-6. doi:10.1080/09540121.2014.998611
Hess KL, Hu X, Lansky A, Mermin J, Hall HI.Lifetime risk of a diagnosis of HIV infection in the United States.Ann Epidemiol. 2017;27(4):238-43. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2017.02.003
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