1HIV Microscopy in PicturesNational Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)Through the use of advanced scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and other imaging techniques, scientists have a far greater ability to investigate the ultrastructure ofHIVand other infective microbes related to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) diseases.
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HIV Microscopy in PicturesNational Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)Through the use of advanced scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and other imaging techniques, scientists have a far greater ability to investigate the ultrastructure ofHIVand other infective microbes related to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) diseases.
HIV Microscopy in Pictures
National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)
Through the use of advanced scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and other imaging techniques, scientists have a far greater ability to investigate the ultrastructure ofHIVand other infective microbes related to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) diseases.
2Healthy Human T CellNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)A scanning electron micrograph of ahuman T-lymphocyte(also called a T cell) from the immune system of a healthy donor.
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Healthy Human T CellNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)A scanning electron micrograph of ahuman T-lymphocyte(also called a T cell) from the immune system of a healthy donor.
Healthy Human T Cell
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)
A scanning electron micrograph of ahuman T-lymphocyte(also called a T cell) from the immune system of a healthy donor.
3HIV-Infected CD4 CellNational Institutes of Health (NIH)A scanning electron micrograph of an HIV-infected CD4 cell. Computer colorization helps differentiate the budding HIV virions (in yellow) as they emerge from the infected cell (in green and turquoise).A CD4 cell is a type of T cell that has a glycoprotein called CD4 on its surface. Also known as “helper” cells, CD4 does not neutralize infection, but rather prompts the body’s immune system to act upon an infective agent. By depleting CD4 cells, the immune function is gradually compromised, increasing the risk of HIV-relatedopportunistic infections.
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HIV-Infected CD4 CellNational Institutes of Health (NIH)A scanning electron micrograph of an HIV-infected CD4 cell. Computer colorization helps differentiate the budding HIV virions (in yellow) as they emerge from the infected cell (in green and turquoise).A CD4 cell is a type of T cell that has a glycoprotein called CD4 on its surface. Also known as “helper” cells, CD4 does not neutralize infection, but rather prompts the body’s immune system to act upon an infective agent. By depleting CD4 cells, the immune function is gradually compromised, increasing the risk of HIV-relatedopportunistic infections.
HIV-Infected CD4 Cell
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
A scanning electron micrograph of an HIV-infected CD4 cell. Computer colorization helps differentiate the budding HIV virions (in yellow) as they emerge from the infected cell (in green and turquoise).
A CD4 cell is a type of T cell that has a glycoprotein called CD4 on its surface. Also known as “helper” cells, CD4 does not neutralize infection, but rather prompts the body’s immune system to act upon an infective agent. By depleting CD4 cells, the immune function is gradually compromised, increasing the risk of HIV-relatedopportunistic infections.
4HIV-Infected CD4 Cell (Close-Up)National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)Increased magnification of an HIV-infected CD4 cell.
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HIV-Infected CD4 Cell (Close-Up)National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)Increased magnification of an HIV-infected CD4 cell.
HIV-Infected CD4 Cell (Close-Up)
Increased magnification of an HIV-infected CD4 cell.
5HIV Budding From an Infected CD4 CellNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)HIV virions are shown budding and releasing from an infected CD4 cell.During or soon after budding, the virion enters the maturation stage in which long strings of protein are cut up into functional HIV protein and enzymes. Maturation is required in order for the virus to become infectious.
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HIV Budding From an Infected CD4 CellNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)HIV virions are shown budding and releasing from an infected CD4 cell.During or soon after budding, the virion enters the maturation stage in which long strings of protein are cut up into functional HIV protein and enzymes. Maturation is required in order for the virus to become infectious.
HIV Budding From an Infected CD4 Cell
HIV virions are shown budding and releasing from an infected CD4 cell.
During or soon after budding, the virion enters the maturation stage in which long strings of protein are cut up into functional HIV protein and enzymes. Maturation is required in order for the virus to become infectious.
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Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
Worldwide, TB is the leading cause of death among people living with HIV.In the United States, of the 8,683 people with TB who had a documented HIV test in 2011, 6% were coinfected with HIV.
7Pneumocystis JiroveciRussell K. Brynes/U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)A silver-stained micrograph ofPneumocystis jirovecifungi isolated from a bronchial irrigation.Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (also known as PCP) is considered an AIDS-defining condition in people with HIV. Due to the effectiveness ofcombination antiretroviral therapy (cART), the incidence of PCP has dropped dramatically since the height of the HIV epidemic the mid-1990s.That said, PCP is still the most common serious infection among people with AIDS in the United States.P. jiroveciiwas originally classified asP. cariniibut was later changed to differentiate it from other forms ofPneumocystisfound in animals.
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Pneumocystis JiroveciRussell K. Brynes/U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)A silver-stained micrograph ofPneumocystis jirovecifungi isolated from a bronchial irrigation.Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (also known as PCP) is considered an AIDS-defining condition in people with HIV. Due to the effectiveness ofcombination antiretroviral therapy (cART), the incidence of PCP has dropped dramatically since the height of the HIV epidemic the mid-1990s.That said, PCP is still the most common serious infection among people with AIDS in the United States.P. jiroveciiwas originally classified asP. cariniibut was later changed to differentiate it from other forms ofPneumocystisfound in animals.
Pneumocystis Jiroveci
Russell K. Brynes/U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
A silver-stained micrograph ofPneumocystis jirovecifungi isolated from a bronchial irrigation.
Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (also known as PCP) is considered an AIDS-defining condition in people with HIV. Due to the effectiveness ofcombination antiretroviral therapy (cART), the incidence of PCP has dropped dramatically since the height of the HIV epidemic the mid-1990s.That said, PCP is still the most common serious infection among people with AIDS in the United States.
P. jiroveciiwas originally classified asP. cariniibut was later changed to differentiate it from other forms ofPneumocystisfound in animals.
8Candida AlbicansPhotograph © Michael Francisco1,000x magnification of an inoculatedCandida albicansculture, isolated from a suspected thrush infection.C. albicansone of a genus of yeast fungi that can cause infections in humans, ranging from superficial oralcandidiasis (thrush)and vaginitis (vaginal yeast infection) to potentially life-threatening, systemic disease in immune-compromised individuals. The CDC has classified esophageal candidiasis (candidiasis of lungs, bronchi, or trachea) as an AIDS-defining condition in people with HIV.Candidiasis is common in people with HIV. While the implementation of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) can significantly reduce the risk of esophageal candidiasis, it still remains one of the most common opportunistic infections in both resource-rich and resource-poor countries.C. albicansis the predominant species most frequently associated with candidiasis, although other forms ofCandidacan cause the infection in humans.
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Candida AlbicansPhotograph © Michael Francisco1,000x magnification of an inoculatedCandida albicansculture, isolated from a suspected thrush infection.C. albicansone of a genus of yeast fungi that can cause infections in humans, ranging from superficial oralcandidiasis (thrush)and vaginitis (vaginal yeast infection) to potentially life-threatening, systemic disease in immune-compromised individuals. The CDC has classified esophageal candidiasis (candidiasis of lungs, bronchi, or trachea) as an AIDS-defining condition in people with HIV.Candidiasis is common in people with HIV. While the implementation of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) can significantly reduce the risk of esophageal candidiasis, it still remains one of the most common opportunistic infections in both resource-rich and resource-poor countries.C. albicansis the predominant species most frequently associated with candidiasis, although other forms ofCandidacan cause the infection in humans.
Candida Albicans
Photograph © Michael Francisco
1,000x magnification of an inoculatedCandida albicansculture, isolated from a suspected thrush infection.
C. albicansone of a genus of yeast fungi that can cause infections in humans, ranging from superficial oralcandidiasis (thrush)and vaginitis (vaginal yeast infection) to potentially life-threatening, systemic disease in immune-compromised individuals. The CDC has classified esophageal candidiasis (candidiasis of lungs, bronchi, or trachea) as an AIDS-defining condition in people with HIV.
Candidiasis is common in people with HIV. While the implementation of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) can significantly reduce the risk of esophageal candidiasis, it still remains one of the most common opportunistic infections in both resource-rich and resource-poor countries.
C. albicansis the predominant species most frequently associated with candidiasis, although other forms ofCandidacan cause the infection in humans.
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Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
BSIP/UIG via Getty Images
Human papillomavirus (HPV)is a virus that can cause infection in humans, and is the most commonsexually transmitted infection (STI)in the United States. While most people infected with HPV are asymptomatic, with little long-term impact, some strains can cause warts that, in a minority of cases, may develop into cancers of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, and the oropharynx (a part of the throat at the back of the mouth).
Studies suggest that women with HIV are at greater risk for acquisition of HPV than non-HIV-infected women while demonstrating greater incidences of HPV-related abnormalities of cervical cells.It is these cells that can develop into cancer of the cervix.
Meanwhile, an estimated 90% ofanal cancersare attributed to HPV, with men who have sex with men (MSM) running nearly 35 times the risk of anal cancer than the general population.
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Toxoplasma Gondii
Photograph © Yale Rosen
A photomicrograph ofToxoplasma gondiifound in the tissue sample.
T. gondiiis a parasitic protozoan that can cause a disease calledtoxoplasmosisin humans and other warm-blooded creatures.If left untreated, toxoplasmosis can cause severe encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) and retinal damage. The most common neurological signs are speech and motor impairment. In advanced disease, seizures, meningitis, optic nerve damage, and psychiatric manifestations are often seen.
Over 200,000 cases of toxoplasmosis are reported in the United States each year, resulting in nearly 750 deaths—making it the second most common cause of lethal food-borne disease behindSalmonella.
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Salmonella
Rocky Mountain Laboratories/NIAID/NIH
A scanning electron micrograph ofSalmonellaenterobacteria invading a cultured human cell.
With the advent of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), Salmonella septicemia is considered rare among people living with HIV in the developed world. However, the majority of U.S.Salmonella-related deaths are either among older people or those with severely compromised immune systems.
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Coccidioides Immitis
Mercy Hospital Toledo, Ohio/Brian J. Harrington/CDC
A calcoflour white stain micrograph of aCoccidiodes immitisspherule with visible endospores.
13Varicella ZosterNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)A fiery-looking electron micrograph ofVaricella zostervirus.Varicella zostervirus (VZV) is a member of the herpes virus family, which commonly causeschickenpoxin children, teens, and young adults. After the resolution of primary infection, VZV lies dormant in the nervous system, with no further complications or consequence.However, in 10%–20% of cases, VZV will reactivate in later adulthood, resulting in herpes zoster (orshingles).These generally occur in older people or people with severely compromised immune systems.People with HIV are 17 times more likely to have VZV reactivation than those non-HIV-infected persons.While herpes zoster appears more frequently in individuals with low CD4 counts (under 200), they can present in people with moderate immune suppression (CD4s around 400).VZV belongs to the same family of virus as the herpes simplex virus (HSV). VZV infection is not considered an AIDS-defining illness.
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Varicella ZosterNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)A fiery-looking electron micrograph ofVaricella zostervirus.Varicella zostervirus (VZV) is a member of the herpes virus family, which commonly causeschickenpoxin children, teens, and young adults. After the resolution of primary infection, VZV lies dormant in the nervous system, with no further complications or consequence.However, in 10%–20% of cases, VZV will reactivate in later adulthood, resulting in herpes zoster (orshingles).These generally occur in older people or people with severely compromised immune systems.People with HIV are 17 times more likely to have VZV reactivation than those non-HIV-infected persons.While herpes zoster appears more frequently in individuals with low CD4 counts (under 200), they can present in people with moderate immune suppression (CD4s around 400).VZV belongs to the same family of virus as the herpes simplex virus (HSV). VZV infection is not considered an AIDS-defining illness.
Varicella Zoster
A fiery-looking electron micrograph ofVaricella zostervirus.
Varicella zostervirus (VZV) is a member of the herpes virus family, which commonly causeschickenpoxin children, teens, and young adults. After the resolution of primary infection, VZV lies dormant in the nervous system, with no further complications or consequence.
However, in 10%–20% of cases, VZV will reactivate in later adulthood, resulting in herpes zoster (orshingles).These generally occur in older people or people with severely compromised immune systems.
People with HIV are 17 times more likely to have VZV reactivation than those non-HIV-infected persons.While herpes zoster appears more frequently in individuals with low CD4 counts (under 200), they can present in people with moderate immune suppression (CD4s around 400).
VZV belongs to the same family of virus as the herpes simplex virus (HSV). VZV infection is not considered an AIDS-defining illness.
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Cystoispora Belli (Isospora Belli)
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Ultraviolet micrograph of an immatureCystoisospora belliparasite.
Cystoispora belli(formerly known asIsospora belli) is an intestinal parasite that can cause can disease in humans called cystoisosporiasis.
With the advent of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), cystoisosporiasis is considered rare among people living with HIV in the developed world. However, occasional outbreaks have been reported in recent years, due in large part to returning travelers from tropical regions, where the disease is more widespread.
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Cryptococcus Neoformans
CDC/Dr. Edwin P. Ewing, Jr.
A mucicarmine stained micrograph ofCryptococcus neoformansin human lung tissue, with yeast cells in red.
C. neoformansis one of two fungal species that can cause disease in humans called cryptococcosis. (The other isC. gattii.) Transmission occurs mainly through inhalation of the fungus, which is present in soil and bird droppings.
While the majority of adults and children exposed to the fungus will not develop cryptococcosis, people with severely compromised immune systems are at increased risk—with infection presenting primarily in the lungs or central nervous system, where it can cause potentially life-threateningmeningitis.
In the developed world, the incidence of cryptococcosis has dropped dramatically since the introduction of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). However, the disease is still a significant contributor to deaths and morbidity in the developing world, particularly sub-Saharan Africa.
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Histoplasma Capsulatum
CDC/Dr. Libero Ajello
A photomicrograph showing twoHistoplasma capsulatumfungi.
H. capsulatumis a fungus that can cause disease in humans called histoplasmosis.H. capsulatumis endemic to parts of the United States, as well as parts of Africa, Southeast Asia, southern Europe, Central America, and South America.
TheH. capsulatumfungus can be found in soil, bird droppings, and bat guano. Because of its association with bats and caves, the disease is frequently referred to as “cave’s disease” or “spelunker’s lung.”
As much as 90% of the population in the eastern and central United States have been exposed toH. capsulatum, with most people experiencing little or no side effects. Those who do generally have mild, flu-like symptoms that quickly resolve with no lasting impact.
In immune-compromised individuals, histoplasmosis can progress to chronic lung infection, similar in expression to tuberculosis. Disseminated histoplasmosis, which can affect multiple major organs, is generally seen in HIV-infected patients with CD4 counts under 150.
12 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Kauffman CA.Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20(1):115–132. doi:10.1128/CMR.00027-06Veesler D, Johnson JE.Virus maturation.Annu Rev Biophys. 2012;41:473–496. doi:10.1146/annurev-biophys-042910-155407Kantipong P, Murakami K, Moolphate S, Aung MN, Yamada N.Causes of mortality among tuberculosis and HIV co-infected patients in Chiang Rai, Northern Thailand.HIV AIDS (Auckl). 2012;4:159–168. doi:10.2147/HIV.S33535Mocroft A, Furrer HJ, Miro JM, et al.The incidence of AIDS-defining illnesses at a current CD4 count ≥ 200 cells/μL in the post-combination antiretroviral therapy era.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(7):1038-47. doi:10.1093/cid/cit423Wang CJ, Sparano J, Palefsky JM.Human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS, human papillomavirus, and anal cancer.Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2017;26(1):17–31. doi:10.1016/j.soc.2016.07.010CDC.People at increased risk for toxoplasmosis. Reviewed September 2018Kurtz JR, Goggins JA, McLachlan JB.Salmonella infection: Interplay between the bacteria and host immune system.Immunol Lett. 2017;190:42–50. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2017.07.006Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Public Health Image Library.CDC.Increase in Reported Coccidioidomycosis - United States, 1998-2011.Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report (MMWR).March 29, 2013: 62(12):217-221.John AR, Canaday DH.Herpes zoster in the older adult.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2017;31(4):811–826. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2017.07.016Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cystoisoproa.Warkentien T, Crum-Cianflone NF.An update on Cryptococcus among HIV-infected patients.Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21(10):679–684. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2010.010182
12 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Kauffman CA.Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20(1):115–132. doi:10.1128/CMR.00027-06Veesler D, Johnson JE.Virus maturation.Annu Rev Biophys. 2012;41:473–496. doi:10.1146/annurev-biophys-042910-155407Kantipong P, Murakami K, Moolphate S, Aung MN, Yamada N.Causes of mortality among tuberculosis and HIV co-infected patients in Chiang Rai, Northern Thailand.HIV AIDS (Auckl). 2012;4:159–168. doi:10.2147/HIV.S33535Mocroft A, Furrer HJ, Miro JM, et al.The incidence of AIDS-defining illnesses at a current CD4 count ≥ 200 cells/μL in the post-combination antiretroviral therapy era.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(7):1038-47. doi:10.1093/cid/cit423Wang CJ, Sparano J, Palefsky JM.Human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS, human papillomavirus, and anal cancer.Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2017;26(1):17–31. doi:10.1016/j.soc.2016.07.010CDC.People at increased risk for toxoplasmosis. Reviewed September 2018Kurtz JR, Goggins JA, McLachlan JB.Salmonella infection: Interplay between the bacteria and host immune system.Immunol Lett. 2017;190:42–50. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2017.07.006Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Public Health Image Library.CDC.Increase in Reported Coccidioidomycosis - United States, 1998-2011.Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report (MMWR).March 29, 2013: 62(12):217-221.John AR, Canaday DH.Herpes zoster in the older adult.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2017;31(4):811–826. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2017.07.016Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cystoisoproa.Warkentien T, Crum-Cianflone NF.An update on Cryptococcus among HIV-infected patients.Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21(10):679–684. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2010.010182
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Kauffman CA.Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20(1):115–132. doi:10.1128/CMR.00027-06Veesler D, Johnson JE.Virus maturation.Annu Rev Biophys. 2012;41:473–496. doi:10.1146/annurev-biophys-042910-155407Kantipong P, Murakami K, Moolphate S, Aung MN, Yamada N.Causes of mortality among tuberculosis and HIV co-infected patients in Chiang Rai, Northern Thailand.HIV AIDS (Auckl). 2012;4:159–168. doi:10.2147/HIV.S33535Mocroft A, Furrer HJ, Miro JM, et al.The incidence of AIDS-defining illnesses at a current CD4 count ≥ 200 cells/μL in the post-combination antiretroviral therapy era.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(7):1038-47. doi:10.1093/cid/cit423Wang CJ, Sparano J, Palefsky JM.Human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS, human papillomavirus, and anal cancer.Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2017;26(1):17–31. doi:10.1016/j.soc.2016.07.010CDC.People at increased risk for toxoplasmosis. Reviewed September 2018Kurtz JR, Goggins JA, McLachlan JB.Salmonella infection: Interplay between the bacteria and host immune system.Immunol Lett. 2017;190:42–50. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2017.07.006Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Public Health Image Library.CDC.Increase in Reported Coccidioidomycosis - United States, 1998-2011.Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report (MMWR).March 29, 2013: 62(12):217-221.John AR, Canaday DH.Herpes zoster in the older adult.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2017;31(4):811–826. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2017.07.016Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cystoisoproa.Warkentien T, Crum-Cianflone NF.An update on Cryptococcus among HIV-infected patients.Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21(10):679–684. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2010.010182
Kauffman CA.Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20(1):115–132. doi:10.1128/CMR.00027-06
Veesler D, Johnson JE.Virus maturation.Annu Rev Biophys. 2012;41:473–496. doi:10.1146/annurev-biophys-042910-155407
Kantipong P, Murakami K, Moolphate S, Aung MN, Yamada N.Causes of mortality among tuberculosis and HIV co-infected patients in Chiang Rai, Northern Thailand.HIV AIDS (Auckl). 2012;4:159–168. doi:10.2147/HIV.S33535
Mocroft A, Furrer HJ, Miro JM, et al.The incidence of AIDS-defining illnesses at a current CD4 count ≥ 200 cells/μL in the post-combination antiretroviral therapy era.Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57(7):1038-47. doi:10.1093/cid/cit423
Wang CJ, Sparano J, Palefsky JM.Human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS, human papillomavirus, and anal cancer.Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2017;26(1):17–31. doi:10.1016/j.soc.2016.07.010
CDC.People at increased risk for toxoplasmosis. Reviewed September 2018
Kurtz JR, Goggins JA, McLachlan JB.Salmonella infection: Interplay between the bacteria and host immune system.Immunol Lett. 2017;190:42–50. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2017.07.006
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Public Health Image Library.
CDC.Increase in Reported Coccidioidomycosis - United States, 1998-2011.Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report (MMWR).March 29, 2013: 62(12):217-221.
John AR, Canaday DH.Herpes zoster in the older adult.Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2017;31(4):811–826. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2017.07.016
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cystoisoproa.
Warkentien T, Crum-Cianflone NF.An update on Cryptococcus among HIV-infected patients.Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21(10):679–684. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2010.010182
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