Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsHeartKidneysBrainLungsPancreasMouth and TeethStomach and Small IntestinesEyesSkinSexual Organs
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Heart
Kidneys
Brain
Lungs
Pancreas
Mouth and Teeth
Stomach and Small Intestines
Eyes
Skin
Sexual Organs
Diabetescan affect many major organs, including your heart, eyes,kidneys, and brain. When the disease isn’t well-controlled, it can lead to many seriouscomorbidities,which are conditions that occur alongside diabetes. For people with type 1 andtype 2 diabetes, finding a treatment plan that works is vital to avoid these problems.
This article looks at some of the health problems that high blood sugar can cause in your body’s organs.
Zay Nyi Nyi / Getty Images
Theheartis part of the cardiovascular orcirculatory system. This body system also includes your blood vessels, which transport oxygen and nutrients to your organs and tissues. Your blood vessels also help remove carbon dioxide, toxins, and waste.
There are four main parts of the circulatory system. Each part has a specific job:
The American Heart Association lists diabetes as one of the seven major controllable risk factors forcardiovascular disease(CVD). CVDs include all types of heart disease,stroke, and blood vessel disease.
People with diabetes are twice as likely to develop cardiovascular disease than people without diabetes.
Over time, diabetes can also cause damage to the blood vessels and nerves that control the heart. The longer you have diabetes, the higher the chances you will develop heart disease.
People with diabetes often have other conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, including:
Thekidneysare bean-shaped organs located below the rib cage and beside the spine. Each is roughly the size of a fist. They are part of the renal system, which also includes:
The kidneys work as a filtration system. They remove waste, extra fluid, and acid from the body. Healthy kidneys help keep a good balance of water, salts, and minerals in the blood.
The kidneys also producevitamin Dand erythropoietin.Vitamin D helps your body absorb calcium and promotes a healthy immune system. Erythropoietin is a hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cells.
If left untreated, diabetic nephropathy can causekidney failure, which can be life-threatening.
About 18% of adults diagnosed with diabetes have chronic kidney disease in its advanced stages, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
High blood sugar can affect cognition, specifically thinking and memory. Research has also shown that diabetes can change the structure of your brain. Because of this, people with diabetes are at increased risk of cognitive decline and are 50% more likely to developdementiathan those without diabetes.
Studies have shown that people with diabetes have lower levels of gray matter density and volume in various parts of the brain.Gray matter is a major part of the central nervous system. It plays a role in daily functioning. Reduced gray matter density or volume can affect a variety of brain and nerve functions.
Diabetes can also damage small blood vessels in the brain. This can lead tostrokesor the death of brain tissue.
Uncontrolled diabetes may reduce lung function. This can lead to mild complications likeasthmaor more severe complications likepulmonary fibrosis.
Researchers don’t know why people with diabetes can have lung problems. Some think inflammation may be the root cause.
Some studies suggest thatdrugs that treat low blood sugarmay contribute to lung disease in people with diabetes. One found that different medications may affect the lungs in different ways. For example, the common diabetes drugmetforminis thought to work against lung disease, whileinsulinmay make lung disease worse.
In type 2, the pancreas is not able to produce enough insulin to bring down blood glucose levels. Insulin resistance develops as cells do not respond to it adequately. The pancreas needs to make more insulin, leading to damage to pancreatic cells that create insulin, which may cause them to stop being able to create insulin in the long run. All this causes a buildup of glucose in the blood, leading to diabetes.
Pancreatic cancercan be a consequence of diabetes, but it can also be the cause. People with type 2 diabetes are at increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer, and pancreatic cancer can also lead to the development of diabetes.
Pancreatic Cancer
Glucose is present in your saliva. When your diabetes is not controlled, high glucose levels in your saliva help harmful bacteria grow. These can combine with food to form a soft, sticky film calledplaque. Some types of plaque cause tooth decay or cavities. Others causegum diseaseand bad breath.
When you have diabetes, gum disease can be more severe and take longer to heal. Having gum disease can also make your blood glucose hard to control.
Plaque can harden over time into tartar, making it more difficult to brush and clean between teeth. When this happens, the gums may become red and swollen, and bleed easily. These are signs of a gum disease calledgingivitis.
Untreated gingivitis can advance to a gum disease calledperiodontitis. When you have this condition, the gums pull away from the teeth and form pockets. These pockets become infected, and the infection can last a long time.
Untreated periodontitis can destroy the gums, bones, and tissue that support the teeth. Your teeth may become loose and might need to be removed.
4 Signs You Have Gum Disease and What to Do About It
High blood sugar levels can damage thevagus nerve. This is the nerve that runs from the brainstem down to the abdomen.When the vagus nerve is damaged, it can cause a condition known asgastroparesis.
When you have this condition, your stomach empties food much slower than it’s supposed to. This can lead to complications like:
Roughly 20% to 50% of people with diabetes will experience gastroparesis.
Gastroparesis Diet: What to Eat and What to Avoid
Sometimes, eye symptoms like blurry vision are the first symptoms of diabetes. Over time, diabetes can lead todiabeticretinopathy. This condition can cause vision problems and blindness.
Diabetic retinopathy can cause other eye problems, such as:
If you have diabetes and are experiencing vision problems, seek medical care right away. These vision problems may be irreversible, and treatment can stop them from progressing to total blindness.
Managing and Preventing Complications of Diabetes
High blood sugar can cause poor circulation. This can damage your skin and make it hard for your body to repair wounds.
Anyone can get a skin condition, but certain conditions only happen to people with diabetes. These include:
Foot ulcersare also common in people with diabetes. They are typically found on the big toes and balls of the feet and can be mild or severe. Their severity is usually measured on a scale of 0 to 5. A possible healed lesion is a 0, while 5 is a severe case ofgangrene(tissue death).
The Effects of Diabetes on Skin
Circulatory system damage causes a decrease in blood flow. This, along with damage to nerves and their ability to send signals, can impair blood flow to thepenis. This can causeerectile dysfunctionin males with diabetes.
Sperm health also relies on your body’s ability to process glucose. When you have diabetes, this ability is compromised, which can lead to poor sperm health. Mature sperm may not be able to fertilize an egg, and they may also be less mobile.
Both males and females with diabetes can experience fertility issues. In males, diabetes can lead to low testosterone levels. This can affect sperm count and lead to a decrease in sex drive.
Among females, diabetes can also cause nerve damage that can lead tovaginal dryness. Blood vessel damage can also result in a lack of blood flow to female reproductive organs.
In females without diabetes, insulin helps drive the production of the hormones that maintain reproductive tissues and regulateovulation. When you have diabetes, this process doesn’t work as well.
How Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) Is Treated
Summary
When you have uncontrolled diabetes, you are at increased risk for several health problems. These problems can affect major organs and organ systems, such as your heart and blood vessels, kidneys, lungs, pancreas, digestive system, and brain. Uncontrolled blood sugar can also affect your mouth and teeth, eyes, skin, and sexual organs.
Importantly, diabetes can put you at risk for life-threatening conditions like heart disease, pancreatic cancer, and kidney failure. Keeping your blood sugar under control is the best way to avoid these serious health problems.
A Word From Verywell
Having diabetes can be difficult, especially if it’s not controlled. Diabetes can affect many different organ systems and cause other diseases that negatively affect your health.
If you have diabetes, it is important to follow your treatment plan. Controlling your diabetes can decrease the risk of developing additional health problems. There are many treatment options available for both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Working with your healthcare provider to find the right treatment plan and then sticking to it is vital for your overall health.
31 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.National Library of Medicine.How does the blood circulatory system work?Angell SY, McConnell MV, Anderson CAM, et al.The American Heart Association 2030 impact goal: a Presidential advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2020;141(9). doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000758American Heart Association.Coronary artery disease—coronary heart disease.Al-Nozha MM, Ismail HM, Al-Nozha OM.Coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus.J Taibah Univ Med Sci.2016;11(4):330-338. doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2016.03.005The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration.Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies.The Lancet. 2010;375(9733):2215-2222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Your heart and diabetes.Ogobuiro I, Tuma F.Physiology, renal. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Sahay M, Kalra S, Bandgar T.Renal endocrinology: the new frontier.Indian J Endocrinol Metab.2012;16(2):154-155. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.93729Sulaiman MK.Diabetic nephropathy: Recent advances in pathophysiology and challenges in dietary management.Diabetol Metab Syndr.2019;11:7. doi:10.1186/s13098-019-0403-4National Kidney Foundation.Diabetes - a major risk factor for kidney disease.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Tracking & Preventing Kidney Disease in America.Moheet A, Mangia S, Seaquist ER.Impact of diabetes on cognitive function and brain structure.Ann N Y Acad Sci.2015;1353:60-71. doi:10.1111/nyas.12807Chen R, Ovbiagele B, Feng W.Diabetes and stroke: epidemiology, pathophysiology, pharmaceuticals and outcomes.Am J Med Sci. 2016;351(4):380-386. doi:10.1016/j.amjms.2016.01.011Kolahian S, Leiss V, Nürnberg B.Diabetic lung disease: fact or fiction?Rev Endocr Metab Disord.2019;20(3):303-319. doi:10.1007/s11154-019-09516-wKhateeb J, Fuchs E, Khamaisi M.Diabetes and lung disease: a neglected relationship.Rev Diabet Stud.2019;15:1-15. doi:10.1900/RDS.2019.15.1Houshang A, Alizadeh M.Diabetes mellitus and pancreas: an overview.JOP J Pancreas; 2020;21(4):72-73.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Diabetes, gum disease, and other related conditions.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Gastroparesis.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Digestion and diabetes.National Health Service.Gastroparesis.Krishnasamy S, Abell TL.Diabetic gastroparesis: principles and current trends in management.Diabetes Ther.2018;9(Suppl 1):1-42. doi:10.1007/s13300-018-0454-9National Eye Institute.Diabetic retinopathy.American Diabetes Association.Diabetes and skin complications.George S, Walton S.Diabetic dermopathy.Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis.2014;14:95-97. doi:10.15277/bjdvd.2014.027Duff M, Demidova O, Blackburn S, Shubrook J.Cutaneous manifestations of diabetes mellitus.Clin Diabetes. 2015;33(1):40-8. doi:10.2337/diaclin.33.1.40American Diabetes Association.Foot complications.Huang ET, Mansouri J, Murad MH, et al.A clinical practice guideline for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.Undersea Hyperb Med.2015;42(3):205-245.American Diabetes Association.Sex and diabetes.Ding GL, Liu Y, Liu ME, et al.The effects of diabetes on male fertility and epigenetic regulation during spermatogenesis.Asian J Androl. 2015;17(6):948-953. doi:10.4103/1008-682X.150844Nandi A, Poretsky L.Diabetes and the female reproductive system.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2013;42(4):915-946. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2013.07.007Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
31 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.National Library of Medicine.How does the blood circulatory system work?Angell SY, McConnell MV, Anderson CAM, et al.The American Heart Association 2030 impact goal: a Presidential advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2020;141(9). doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000758American Heart Association.Coronary artery disease—coronary heart disease.Al-Nozha MM, Ismail HM, Al-Nozha OM.Coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus.J Taibah Univ Med Sci.2016;11(4):330-338. doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2016.03.005The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration.Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies.The Lancet. 2010;375(9733):2215-2222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Your heart and diabetes.Ogobuiro I, Tuma F.Physiology, renal. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Sahay M, Kalra S, Bandgar T.Renal endocrinology: the new frontier.Indian J Endocrinol Metab.2012;16(2):154-155. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.93729Sulaiman MK.Diabetic nephropathy: Recent advances in pathophysiology and challenges in dietary management.Diabetol Metab Syndr.2019;11:7. doi:10.1186/s13098-019-0403-4National Kidney Foundation.Diabetes - a major risk factor for kidney disease.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Tracking & Preventing Kidney Disease in America.Moheet A, Mangia S, Seaquist ER.Impact of diabetes on cognitive function and brain structure.Ann N Y Acad Sci.2015;1353:60-71. doi:10.1111/nyas.12807Chen R, Ovbiagele B, Feng W.Diabetes and stroke: epidemiology, pathophysiology, pharmaceuticals and outcomes.Am J Med Sci. 2016;351(4):380-386. doi:10.1016/j.amjms.2016.01.011Kolahian S, Leiss V, Nürnberg B.Diabetic lung disease: fact or fiction?Rev Endocr Metab Disord.2019;20(3):303-319. doi:10.1007/s11154-019-09516-wKhateeb J, Fuchs E, Khamaisi M.Diabetes and lung disease: a neglected relationship.Rev Diabet Stud.2019;15:1-15. doi:10.1900/RDS.2019.15.1Houshang A, Alizadeh M.Diabetes mellitus and pancreas: an overview.JOP J Pancreas; 2020;21(4):72-73.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Diabetes, gum disease, and other related conditions.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Gastroparesis.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Digestion and diabetes.National Health Service.Gastroparesis.Krishnasamy S, Abell TL.Diabetic gastroparesis: principles and current trends in management.Diabetes Ther.2018;9(Suppl 1):1-42. doi:10.1007/s13300-018-0454-9National Eye Institute.Diabetic retinopathy.American Diabetes Association.Diabetes and skin complications.George S, Walton S.Diabetic dermopathy.Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis.2014;14:95-97. doi:10.15277/bjdvd.2014.027Duff M, Demidova O, Blackburn S, Shubrook J.Cutaneous manifestations of diabetes mellitus.Clin Diabetes. 2015;33(1):40-8. doi:10.2337/diaclin.33.1.40American Diabetes Association.Foot complications.Huang ET, Mansouri J, Murad MH, et al.A clinical practice guideline for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.Undersea Hyperb Med.2015;42(3):205-245.American Diabetes Association.Sex and diabetes.Ding GL, Liu Y, Liu ME, et al.The effects of diabetes on male fertility and epigenetic regulation during spermatogenesis.Asian J Androl. 2015;17(6):948-953. doi:10.4103/1008-682X.150844Nandi A, Poretsky L.Diabetes and the female reproductive system.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2013;42(4):915-946. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2013.07.007Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
National Library of Medicine.How does the blood circulatory system work?Angell SY, McConnell MV, Anderson CAM, et al.The American Heart Association 2030 impact goal: a Presidential advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2020;141(9). doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000758American Heart Association.Coronary artery disease—coronary heart disease.Al-Nozha MM, Ismail HM, Al-Nozha OM.Coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus.J Taibah Univ Med Sci.2016;11(4):330-338. doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2016.03.005The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration.Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies.The Lancet. 2010;375(9733):2215-2222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Your heart and diabetes.Ogobuiro I, Tuma F.Physiology, renal. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Sahay M, Kalra S, Bandgar T.Renal endocrinology: the new frontier.Indian J Endocrinol Metab.2012;16(2):154-155. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.93729Sulaiman MK.Diabetic nephropathy: Recent advances in pathophysiology and challenges in dietary management.Diabetol Metab Syndr.2019;11:7. doi:10.1186/s13098-019-0403-4National Kidney Foundation.Diabetes - a major risk factor for kidney disease.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Tracking & Preventing Kidney Disease in America.Moheet A, Mangia S, Seaquist ER.Impact of diabetes on cognitive function and brain structure.Ann N Y Acad Sci.2015;1353:60-71. doi:10.1111/nyas.12807Chen R, Ovbiagele B, Feng W.Diabetes and stroke: epidemiology, pathophysiology, pharmaceuticals and outcomes.Am J Med Sci. 2016;351(4):380-386. doi:10.1016/j.amjms.2016.01.011Kolahian S, Leiss V, Nürnberg B.Diabetic lung disease: fact or fiction?Rev Endocr Metab Disord.2019;20(3):303-319. doi:10.1007/s11154-019-09516-wKhateeb J, Fuchs E, Khamaisi M.Diabetes and lung disease: a neglected relationship.Rev Diabet Stud.2019;15:1-15. doi:10.1900/RDS.2019.15.1Houshang A, Alizadeh M.Diabetes mellitus and pancreas: an overview.JOP J Pancreas; 2020;21(4):72-73.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Diabetes, gum disease, and other related conditions.National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Gastroparesis.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Digestion and diabetes.National Health Service.Gastroparesis.Krishnasamy S, Abell TL.Diabetic gastroparesis: principles and current trends in management.Diabetes Ther.2018;9(Suppl 1):1-42. doi:10.1007/s13300-018-0454-9National Eye Institute.Diabetic retinopathy.American Diabetes Association.Diabetes and skin complications.George S, Walton S.Diabetic dermopathy.Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis.2014;14:95-97. doi:10.15277/bjdvd.2014.027Duff M, Demidova O, Blackburn S, Shubrook J.Cutaneous manifestations of diabetes mellitus.Clin Diabetes. 2015;33(1):40-8. doi:10.2337/diaclin.33.1.40American Diabetes Association.Foot complications.Huang ET, Mansouri J, Murad MH, et al.A clinical practice guideline for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.Undersea Hyperb Med.2015;42(3):205-245.American Diabetes Association.Sex and diabetes.Ding GL, Liu Y, Liu ME, et al.The effects of diabetes on male fertility and epigenetic regulation during spermatogenesis.Asian J Androl. 2015;17(6):948-953. doi:10.4103/1008-682X.150844Nandi A, Poretsky L.Diabetes and the female reproductive system.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2013;42(4):915-946. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2013.07.007Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
National Library of Medicine.How does the blood circulatory system work?
Angell SY, McConnell MV, Anderson CAM, et al.The American Heart Association 2030 impact goal: a Presidential advisory from the American Heart Association.Circulation. 2020;141(9). doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000758
American Heart Association.Coronary artery disease—coronary heart disease.
Al-Nozha MM, Ismail HM, Al-Nozha OM.Coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus.J Taibah Univ Med Sci.2016;11(4):330-338. doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2016.03.005
The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration.Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies.The Lancet. 2010;375(9733):2215-2222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Your heart and diabetes.
Ogobuiro I, Tuma F.Physiology, renal. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Sahay M, Kalra S, Bandgar T.Renal endocrinology: the new frontier.Indian J Endocrinol Metab.2012;16(2):154-155. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.93729
Sulaiman MK.Diabetic nephropathy: Recent advances in pathophysiology and challenges in dietary management.Diabetol Metab Syndr.2019;11:7. doi:10.1186/s13098-019-0403-4
National Kidney Foundation.Diabetes - a major risk factor for kidney disease.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Tracking & Preventing Kidney Disease in America.
Moheet A, Mangia S, Seaquist ER.Impact of diabetes on cognitive function and brain structure.Ann N Y Acad Sci.2015;1353:60-71. doi:10.1111/nyas.12807
Chen R, Ovbiagele B, Feng W.Diabetes and stroke: epidemiology, pathophysiology, pharmaceuticals and outcomes.Am J Med Sci. 2016;351(4):380-386. doi:10.1016/j.amjms.2016.01.011
Kolahian S, Leiss V, Nürnberg B.Diabetic lung disease: fact or fiction?Rev Endocr Metab Disord.2019;20(3):303-319. doi:10.1007/s11154-019-09516-w
Khateeb J, Fuchs E, Khamaisi M.Diabetes and lung disease: a neglected relationship.Rev Diabet Stud.2019;15:1-15. doi:10.1900/RDS.2019.15.1
Houshang A, Alizadeh M.Diabetes mellitus and pancreas: an overview.JOP J Pancreas; 2020;21(4):72-73.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Diabetes, gum disease, and other related conditions.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.Gastroparesis.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Digestion and diabetes.
National Health Service.Gastroparesis.
Krishnasamy S, Abell TL.Diabetic gastroparesis: principles and current trends in management.Diabetes Ther.2018;9(Suppl 1):1-42. doi:10.1007/s13300-018-0454-9
National Eye Institute.Diabetic retinopathy.
American Diabetes Association.Diabetes and skin complications.
George S, Walton S.Diabetic dermopathy.Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis.2014;14:95-97. doi:10.15277/bjdvd.2014.027
Duff M, Demidova O, Blackburn S, Shubrook J.Cutaneous manifestations of diabetes mellitus.Clin Diabetes. 2015;33(1):40-8. doi:10.2337/diaclin.33.1.40
American Diabetes Association.Foot complications.
Huang ET, Mansouri J, Murad MH, et al.A clinical practice guideline for the use of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.Undersea Hyperb Med.2015;42(3):205-245.
American Diabetes Association.Sex and diabetes.
Ding GL, Liu Y, Liu ME, et al.The effects of diabetes on male fertility and epigenetic regulation during spermatogenesis.Asian J Androl. 2015;17(6):948-953. doi:10.4103/1008-682X.150844
Nandi A, Poretsky L.Diabetes and the female reproductive system.Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am.2013;42(4):915-946. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2013.07.007
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
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