Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsDaily Amount of Vitamin DWhat Influences Vitamin D Requirements?Health Benefits of Vitamin D for WomenHow Do I Know My Vitamin D Status?Sources of Vitamin DSafety Considerations
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Daily Amount of Vitamin D
What Influences Vitamin D Requirements?
Health Benefits of Vitamin D for Women
How Do I Know My Vitamin D Status?
Sources of Vitamin D
Safety Considerations
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin from the sun, food, or dietary supplements. For women, vitamin D is critical, helping to maintain strong bones and support healthy pregnancies.
Maintaining adequate vitamin D levels is essential for health. All vitamin D sources must go through a series of chemical reactions in the body before use. So, the source of vitamin D does not necessarily matter as long as you are getting enough.
The following article covers vitamin D, its benefits, how much you should consume, and more.
Gender identity is how an individual experiences gender internally. Sex reflects biology (chromosomal makeup, hormones, and/or anatomy). Gender identity can be the same or different from one’s assigned sex at birth. It speaks to one’s sense of self and may not be outwardly visible.
Female taking an omega-3 supplement capsule.TaPhotograph / Getty Images
TaPhotograph / Getty Images
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) forvitamin Dis the following for women:
Fat enhances vitamin D absorption.Consume vitamin D with food sources of fat such as oil, dairy,nuts, or seeds. Moreover, many fortifiedfood sources of vitamin D, like dairy products, already naturally contain fat.
Most women do not consume the RDA for vitamin D. Still, they can meet their vitamin D needs through sun exposure and a combination of foods.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate supplements like prescription drugs. This means some supplement products may not contain what the label says. Whenchoosing a supplement, look for independently tested products and consult a healthcare provider,registered dietitian nutritionist (RDN or RD), or pharmacist.
Multiple factors influence vitamin D absorption and requirements, including the following.
Sunlight Exposure
Exposure to sunlight is essential for the body to produce vitamin D. About 80% of vitamin D in the body comes from the sun.
Balancing the risk ofultraviolet (UV)exposure with the need for vitamin D is tricky. However, research shows that protecting skin from UV rays withsunscreendoes not meaningfully impact vitamin D levels.
A person’s vitamin D concentrations tend to change depending on the season. Vitamin D levels dip in seasons with less light, like winter. This is due to the sun’s decreased strength and limited direct skin exposure to sunlight.
Individuals who spend significant amounts of time indoors may require more vitamin D from other sources. Similarly, people who always cover their bodies when outside experience a greater risk of vitamin D deficiency.
Age and Life Stage
Getting enough vitamin D is essential at all stages of life.
Vitamin D is necessary for infants. Although breast milk contains some vitamin D, it is not enough to meet the RDA of 10 mcg (400 IU).
Breastfedinfants should receive supplemental vitamin D. Infant formulas contain sufficient vitamin D, so supplementation is unnecessary.
Older adults have higher vitamin D requirements. The body’s ability to produce vitamin D from sunlight decreases with age. Additionally, older adults may be likelier to spend more time indoors.
Less exposure to sunlight contributes to a higher demand for other sources of vitamin D.Aging does not affect the gut’s ability to absorb vitamin D.
Skin Tone
Melanin is a pigment that gives skin its color. Melanin also filters UV light and protects skin against sun damage. Higher melanin levels cause darkerskin pigments.
People with skin with more melanin typically need more sunlight to get enough vitamin D. They can have a more challenging time getting enough of it during winter months or in lower light. Conversely, skin with less melanin gets vitamin D from the sun more easily.
Be sure to speak with your healthcare provider about your unique vitamin D needs and how to ensure that you get enough to stay healthy.
Geographic Location
Many geographical factors affect vitamin D production from the sun.
Vitamin D production increases at higher altitudes because of greater UV exposure. Conversely, smog, cloud cover, and thicker ozone layers limit the amount of UV radiation that reaches the skin.
Locations further from the equator at higher altitudes experience less sunlight in the winter and more in the summer. This contributes to seasonal differences in vitamin D status.
Other Factors
Health conditions that affectnutrient absorptionimpact vitamin D requirements. Some instances that require additional consideration for vitamin D include the following:
Research on the importance of vitamin D continues to evolve, with more evidence supporting its essential role in female health. Maintaining adequate vitamin D levels benefits bone health, immune function, pregnancy outcomes, and mood.
Bone Health
Bones are constantly remodeling. Under normal conditions, the bone breakdown rate equals the bone-building rate. However, over time and with changes that occur with aging, bone breakdown can overtake bone building.
Setting yourself up for bone health at each life stage is vital. Women reach peak bone mass around the age of 30. Vitamin D is essential for supporting the accumulation of bone mass.
Hormonal changes duringmenopauseaffectbone health. Significant bone remodeling occurs post-menopause, requiring adequate vitamin D levels to preventbone loss.
Vitamin D andcalciumwork together to support bone health. Calcium is the main mineral in bones, and vitamin D is required for adequate calcium absorption.
Despite vitamin D’s influential role in bone health, it remains unclear if vitamin D in amounts greater than the RDA benefits bone health and protects against fractures. Current guidelines encourage meeting the RDA through food orsupplements to support bone health.
Immune Function
More and more research supports the role of vitamin D in immune health. Vitamin D influences immune function in myriad ways. Vitamin D receptors line immune cells, helping to regulateinflammationand the body’s immune response.
Vitamin D supports the body’s innateimmune system, helping to defend it against harmful organisms (pathogens).
Additionally, emerging research suggests a role for vitamin D in supporting a healthygut microbiome.
Maintaining adequate vitamin D levels supports immune health and function. Low vitamin D levels increase susceptibility to infections and illnesses. Moreover,insufficient vitamin Dstatus is associated with a greater risk of autoimmune diseases, such asHashimoto’s disease.
Mood Regulation
Vitamin D is involved in numerous brain processes. Brain and nerve cells (neurons) have vitamin D receptors. Additionally, vitamin D influences the release of mood-related neurotransmitters likeserotoninanddopamine.
A link exists between low levels of vitamin D anddepression. However, research shows mixed results on the benefits of vitamin D supplementation for reducing depression symptoms.
Notably, vitamin D influences pregnancy andpostpartum depression.Lower vitamin D concentrations are associated with an increased risk of pregnancy and postpartum depression.
Still, additional research is necessary to determine the effects of vitamin D supplements on mood, particularly among people without MDD and with adequate vitamin D levels.
Pregnancy
Some reports indicate that 40% of pregnant individuals are vitamin D deficient.Low levels of vitamin D are associated with pregnancy complications. So, ensuring adequate vitamin D concentrations during pregnancy may improve pregnancy outcomes.
Research shows a link between low vitamin D andmiscarriages. However, it is unclear whether supplementing with vitamin D protects against miscarriages.
Vitamin D influences the success ofin vitro fertilization (IVF). According to one analysis, people with sufficient vitamin D levels experience greater success with IVF. Still, more studies are necessary.
Multiple studies have shown that adequate vitamin D levels reduce the risk ofpreeclampsia.Some evidence also indicates vitamin D supplementation lowers the risk of severepostpartum bleeding, but more research is necessary.
Avitamin D blood testmeasures25-hydroxyvitamin D(calcidiol), the circulating form of vitamin D. Calcidiol reflects vitamin D from sun exposure, supplements, and food.
The Food and Nutrition Board at the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine defines vitamin D status for adults based on the following values of 25-hydroxyvitamin D:
Avitamin D deficiencycausesricketsin children andsoft bones(osteomalacia)in adults. There is no consensus on a standard or optimal vitamin D level.Still, insufficient vitamin D negatively affects bone and overall health.
Not getting enough vitamin D over time causes decreased bone mass and density (osteoporosis). More than 53 million people in the United States are at risk for osteoporosis, which increases the chance of fractures.
To prevent low vitamin D, prioritize vitamin D-rich foods, supplement as warranted, and spend time outdoors. Blood tests enable you to check vitamin D status and adjust your routine accordingly, whether that includes adding or changing a supplement dosage.
There are three ways to get vitamin D: sun, food, andsupplements.
Sunlight
Sunlight is the best source of vitamin D. However, protecting skin from sun damage is essential to reduce the risk ofskin cancer (melanoma).
The best time to get sun for vitamin D production is between 10:30 a.m. and 1:30 p.m. During this time, the sun’s rays are at a narrower angle, allowing for more sunlight to reach the skin.However, this is also the peak time for potential sun damage, especially during the summer months. Using sunscreen with asun protection factor (SPF)is key.
Research shows that sunscreen with an SPF of up to 30 minimally affects vitamin D levels. UV radiation can penetrate the skin and be converted into vitamin D despite sunscreen. Therefore, regularly spending time in the sun with sunscreen still permits vitamin D absorption.
Food Sources
Natural food sources of vitamin D include the following:
Many food products have vitamin D added. Fortified food sources of vitamin D include the following:
Supplements
There are two forms of vitamin D: D2 (ergocalciferol) and D3 (cholecalciferol). Vitamin D2 is plant-based. Vitamin D3 is often obtained from animal sources but can also be produced from lichen.
There is no consensus on the ideal dosage of vitamin D. In the absence of a deficiency, the Institute of Medicine recommends supplementing with vitamin D in the amount necessary to meet the RDA of 600 IU daily.
So, if you eat two eggs and drink a glass of milk daily, supplementing with 400 IU of vitamin D should be sufficient.
However, other organizations disagree. The Endocrine Society recommends adults take 1,500 to 2,000 IU of vitamin D daily to keep vitamin D levels above 30 ng/mL.
The effects of vitamin D supplementation depend on dosage, duration, and baseline vitamin status. Working with a registered dietitian can help determine the appropriate dosage.
Avoid vitamin D if you’re allergic to it or its components (parts). Seek immediate medical attention if you have asevere allergic reaction(itching, hives, shortness of breath).
Vitamin D is toxic in excessive amounts. Vitamin D toxicity is possible from supplements, not food or sun exposure.
Too much vitamin Dincreases calcium absorption in the digestive tract, contributing to high calcium (hypercalcemia). In severe cases, vitamin D toxicity causes kidney failure,calcificationof soft tissue throughout the body, heart issues, and even death.
Because of the health effects associated with excessive intake, the tolerable upper limit for vitamin D is 4,000 IU daily for women ages 9 and older and those who are pregnant and lactating.
Be mindful of vitamin D when using the following medications:
Summary
Vitamin D confers multiple health benefits for women, such as supporting bone strength and reducing pregnancy complications.
Although few foods naturally contain vitamin D, the RDA of 600 IU can be reached through a combination of different foods (including fortified ones), supplements, and sun exposure.
Maintaining sufficient nutrient levels is essential for reaping the benefits of vitamin D.
26 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2020 - 2025.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.Sassi F, Tamone C, D’Amelio P.Vitamin D: nutrient, hormone, and immunomodulator.Nutrients. 2018;10(11):1656. doi:10.3390/nu10111656Raymond-Lezman JR, Riskin SI.Benefits and risks of sun exposure to maintain adequate vitamin D levels.Cureus. 2023;15(5):e38578. doi:10.7759/cureus.38578Neale RE, Khan SR, Lucas RM, et al.The effect of sunscreen on vitamin D: a review.Br J Dermatol. 2019;181(5):907-915. doi:10.1111/bjd.17980Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB.Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. National Academies Press (US); 2011.Giustina A, Bouillon R, Dawson-Hughes B, et al.Vitamin D in the older population: a consensus statement.Endocrine. 2023;79(1):31-44. doi:10.1007/s12020-022-03208-3Palacios C, Kostiuk LK, Peña-Rosas JP.Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;7(7):CD008873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008873.pub4National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.The Basics: Defining how much alcohol is too much.Ogunsakin O, Hottor T, Mehta A, et al.Chronic ethanol exposure effects on vitamin D levels among subjects with alcohol use disorder.Environ Health Insights. 2016;10:191-199. Published 2016 Oct 20. doi:10.4137/EHI.S40335Weaver CM, Alexander DD, Boushey CJ, et al.Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and risk of fractures: an updated meta-analysis from the National Osteoporosis Foundation.Osteoporos Int. 2016;27(1):367-376. doi:10.1007/s00198-015-3386-5Liu C, Kuang X, Li K, et al.Effects of combined calcium and vitamin D supplementation on osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Food Funct. 2020;11(12):10817-10827. doi:10.1039/d0fo00787kWimalawansa SJ.Infections and autoimmunity—the immune system and vitamin D: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2023;15(17):3842. doi:10.3390/nu15173842Mikola T, Marx W, Lane MM, et al.The effect of vitamin D supplementation on depressive symptoms in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023;63(33):11784-11801. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2096560Gowda U, Mutowo MP, Smith BJ, et al.Vitamin D supplementation to reduce depression in adults: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutrition. 2015;31(3):421-429. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2014.06.017Aghajafari F, Letourneau N, Mahinpey N, et al.Vitamin D deficiency and antenatal and postpartum depression: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2018;10(4):478. doi:10.3390/nu10040478Fogacci S, Fogacci F, Banach M, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and incident preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Clin Nutr. 2020;39(6):1742-1752. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.08.015Tamblyn JA, Pilarski NSP, Markland AD, et al.Vitamin D and miscarriage: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Fertil Steril. 2022;118(1):111-122. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.04.017Iliuta F, Pijoan JI, Lainz L, et al.Women’s vitamin D levels and IVF results: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis, considering three categories of vitamin status (replete, insufficient and deficient).Hum Fertil (Camb). 2022;25(2):228-246. doi:10.1080/14647273.2020.1807618Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA, et al.The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jan;96(1):53-8. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-2704U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, trout, rainbow, farmed, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, farmed, cooked, dry heat.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Mushroom, white, exposed to ultraviolet light, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Eggs, grade A, large, egg whole.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Milk, reduced fat, fluid, 2% milkfat, with added vitamin A and vitamin D.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Soymilk (all flavors), unsweetened, with added calcium, vitamins A and D.
26 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2020 - 2025.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.Sassi F, Tamone C, D’Amelio P.Vitamin D: nutrient, hormone, and immunomodulator.Nutrients. 2018;10(11):1656. doi:10.3390/nu10111656Raymond-Lezman JR, Riskin SI.Benefits and risks of sun exposure to maintain adequate vitamin D levels.Cureus. 2023;15(5):e38578. doi:10.7759/cureus.38578Neale RE, Khan SR, Lucas RM, et al.The effect of sunscreen on vitamin D: a review.Br J Dermatol. 2019;181(5):907-915. doi:10.1111/bjd.17980Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB.Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. National Academies Press (US); 2011.Giustina A, Bouillon R, Dawson-Hughes B, et al.Vitamin D in the older population: a consensus statement.Endocrine. 2023;79(1):31-44. doi:10.1007/s12020-022-03208-3Palacios C, Kostiuk LK, Peña-Rosas JP.Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;7(7):CD008873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008873.pub4National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.The Basics: Defining how much alcohol is too much.Ogunsakin O, Hottor T, Mehta A, et al.Chronic ethanol exposure effects on vitamin D levels among subjects with alcohol use disorder.Environ Health Insights. 2016;10:191-199. Published 2016 Oct 20. doi:10.4137/EHI.S40335Weaver CM, Alexander DD, Boushey CJ, et al.Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and risk of fractures: an updated meta-analysis from the National Osteoporosis Foundation.Osteoporos Int. 2016;27(1):367-376. doi:10.1007/s00198-015-3386-5Liu C, Kuang X, Li K, et al.Effects of combined calcium and vitamin D supplementation on osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Food Funct. 2020;11(12):10817-10827. doi:10.1039/d0fo00787kWimalawansa SJ.Infections and autoimmunity—the immune system and vitamin D: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2023;15(17):3842. doi:10.3390/nu15173842Mikola T, Marx W, Lane MM, et al.The effect of vitamin D supplementation on depressive symptoms in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023;63(33):11784-11801. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2096560Gowda U, Mutowo MP, Smith BJ, et al.Vitamin D supplementation to reduce depression in adults: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutrition. 2015;31(3):421-429. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2014.06.017Aghajafari F, Letourneau N, Mahinpey N, et al.Vitamin D deficiency and antenatal and postpartum depression: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2018;10(4):478. doi:10.3390/nu10040478Fogacci S, Fogacci F, Banach M, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and incident preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Clin Nutr. 2020;39(6):1742-1752. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.08.015Tamblyn JA, Pilarski NSP, Markland AD, et al.Vitamin D and miscarriage: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Fertil Steril. 2022;118(1):111-122. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.04.017Iliuta F, Pijoan JI, Lainz L, et al.Women’s vitamin D levels and IVF results: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis, considering three categories of vitamin status (replete, insufficient and deficient).Hum Fertil (Camb). 2022;25(2):228-246. doi:10.1080/14647273.2020.1807618Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA, et al.The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jan;96(1):53-8. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-2704U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, trout, rainbow, farmed, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, farmed, cooked, dry heat.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Mushroom, white, exposed to ultraviolet light, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Eggs, grade A, large, egg whole.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Milk, reduced fat, fluid, 2% milkfat, with added vitamin A and vitamin D.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Soymilk (all flavors), unsweetened, with added calcium, vitamins A and D.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2020 - 2025.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.Sassi F, Tamone C, D’Amelio P.Vitamin D: nutrient, hormone, and immunomodulator.Nutrients. 2018;10(11):1656. doi:10.3390/nu10111656Raymond-Lezman JR, Riskin SI.Benefits and risks of sun exposure to maintain adequate vitamin D levels.Cureus. 2023;15(5):e38578. doi:10.7759/cureus.38578Neale RE, Khan SR, Lucas RM, et al.The effect of sunscreen on vitamin D: a review.Br J Dermatol. 2019;181(5):907-915. doi:10.1111/bjd.17980Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB.Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. National Academies Press (US); 2011.Giustina A, Bouillon R, Dawson-Hughes B, et al.Vitamin D in the older population: a consensus statement.Endocrine. 2023;79(1):31-44. doi:10.1007/s12020-022-03208-3Palacios C, Kostiuk LK, Peña-Rosas JP.Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;7(7):CD008873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008873.pub4National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.The Basics: Defining how much alcohol is too much.Ogunsakin O, Hottor T, Mehta A, et al.Chronic ethanol exposure effects on vitamin D levels among subjects with alcohol use disorder.Environ Health Insights. 2016;10:191-199. Published 2016 Oct 20. doi:10.4137/EHI.S40335Weaver CM, Alexander DD, Boushey CJ, et al.Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and risk of fractures: an updated meta-analysis from the National Osteoporosis Foundation.Osteoporos Int. 2016;27(1):367-376. doi:10.1007/s00198-015-3386-5Liu C, Kuang X, Li K, et al.Effects of combined calcium and vitamin D supplementation on osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Food Funct. 2020;11(12):10817-10827. doi:10.1039/d0fo00787kWimalawansa SJ.Infections and autoimmunity—the immune system and vitamin D: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2023;15(17):3842. doi:10.3390/nu15173842Mikola T, Marx W, Lane MM, et al.The effect of vitamin D supplementation on depressive symptoms in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023;63(33):11784-11801. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2096560Gowda U, Mutowo MP, Smith BJ, et al.Vitamin D supplementation to reduce depression in adults: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutrition. 2015;31(3):421-429. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2014.06.017Aghajafari F, Letourneau N, Mahinpey N, et al.Vitamin D deficiency and antenatal and postpartum depression: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2018;10(4):478. doi:10.3390/nu10040478Fogacci S, Fogacci F, Banach M, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and incident preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Clin Nutr. 2020;39(6):1742-1752. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.08.015Tamblyn JA, Pilarski NSP, Markland AD, et al.Vitamin D and miscarriage: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Fertil Steril. 2022;118(1):111-122. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.04.017Iliuta F, Pijoan JI, Lainz L, et al.Women’s vitamin D levels and IVF results: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis, considering three categories of vitamin status (replete, insufficient and deficient).Hum Fertil (Camb). 2022;25(2):228-246. doi:10.1080/14647273.2020.1807618Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA, et al.The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jan;96(1):53-8. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-2704U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, trout, rainbow, farmed, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, farmed, cooked, dry heat.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Mushroom, white, exposed to ultraviolet light, raw.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Eggs, grade A, large, egg whole.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Milk, reduced fat, fluid, 2% milkfat, with added vitamin A and vitamin D.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Soymilk (all flavors), unsweetened, with added calcium, vitamins A and D.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2020 - 2025.
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin D.
Sassi F, Tamone C, D’Amelio P.Vitamin D: nutrient, hormone, and immunomodulator.Nutrients. 2018;10(11):1656. doi:10.3390/nu10111656
Raymond-Lezman JR, Riskin SI.Benefits and risks of sun exposure to maintain adequate vitamin D levels.Cureus. 2023;15(5):e38578. doi:10.7759/cureus.38578
Neale RE, Khan SR, Lucas RM, et al.The effect of sunscreen on vitamin D: a review.Br J Dermatol. 2019;181(5):907-915. doi:10.1111/bjd.17980
Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB.Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. National Academies Press (US); 2011.
Giustina A, Bouillon R, Dawson-Hughes B, et al.Vitamin D in the older population: a consensus statement.Endocrine. 2023;79(1):31-44. doi:10.1007/s12020-022-03208-3
Palacios C, Kostiuk LK, Peña-Rosas JP.Vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;7(7):CD008873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008873.pub4
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.The Basics: Defining how much alcohol is too much.
Ogunsakin O, Hottor T, Mehta A, et al.Chronic ethanol exposure effects on vitamin D levels among subjects with alcohol use disorder.Environ Health Insights. 2016;10:191-199. Published 2016 Oct 20. doi:10.4137/EHI.S40335
Weaver CM, Alexander DD, Boushey CJ, et al.Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and risk of fractures: an updated meta-analysis from the National Osteoporosis Foundation.Osteoporos Int. 2016;27(1):367-376. doi:10.1007/s00198-015-3386-5
Liu C, Kuang X, Li K, et al.Effects of combined calcium and vitamin D supplementation on osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Food Funct. 2020;11(12):10817-10827. doi:10.1039/d0fo00787k
Wimalawansa SJ.Infections and autoimmunity—the immune system and vitamin D: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2023;15(17):3842. doi:10.3390/nu15173842
Mikola T, Marx W, Lane MM, et al.The effect of vitamin D supplementation on depressive symptoms in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023;63(33):11784-11801. doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2096560
Gowda U, Mutowo MP, Smith BJ, et al.Vitamin D supplementation to reduce depression in adults: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutrition. 2015;31(3):421-429. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2014.06.017
Aghajafari F, Letourneau N, Mahinpey N, et al.Vitamin D deficiency and antenatal and postpartum depression: a systematic review.Nutrients. 2018;10(4):478. doi:10.3390/nu10040478
Fogacci S, Fogacci F, Banach M, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and incident preeclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Clin Nutr. 2020;39(6):1742-1752. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.08.015
Tamblyn JA, Pilarski NSP, Markland AD, et al.Vitamin D and miscarriage: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Fertil Steril. 2022;118(1):111-122. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.04.017
Iliuta F, Pijoan JI, Lainz L, et al.Women’s vitamin D levels and IVF results: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis, considering three categories of vitamin status (replete, insufficient and deficient).Hum Fertil (Camb). 2022;25(2):228-246. doi:10.1080/14647273.2020.1807618
Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA, et al.The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Jan;96(1):53-8. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-2704
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, trout, rainbow, farmed, raw.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Fish, salmon, Atlantic, farmed, cooked, dry heat.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Mushroom, white, exposed to ultraviolet light, raw.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Eggs, grade A, large, egg whole.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Milk, reduced fat, fluid, 2% milkfat, with added vitamin A and vitamin D.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Soymilk (all flavors), unsweetened, with added calcium, vitamins A and D.
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