Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsSerotonin and MoodNatural TreatmentsMedications
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Serotonin and Mood
Natural Treatments
Medications
Learning how to increaseserotonin—a “feel-good” hormone—can have a host of benefits. Serotonin functions as aneurotransmitter, sending chemical messages that stimulate the reward center of the brain. Doing so increases feelings of happiness and well-being while improving cognitive functions such as memory and attention. Serotonin also plays a role in regulating digestion and sleep.
This article explains how serotonin levels affect your mood. It also offers tips for boosting serotonin both naturally and synthetically through medications and supplements.
Why Are Serotonin Levels Important?
Having adequate serotonin levels is important for your mental and physical health. Too little serotonin can increase your risk of depression and other mental health challenges likeanxietyandobsessive-compulsive disorder(OCD).
Low levels of serotoninhave also been associated with the development of certain diseases, includingchronic fatigue syndrome(extreme, long-term fatigue),fibromyalgia(condition of widespread pain), Alzheimer’s, (progressive disease causing memory problems and mental confusion), and Parkinson’s (neurological disease affecting movement).
It’s also possible for serotonin levels to be too high. This can lead toserotonin syndrome, a rare condition that can cause symptoms ranging from mild (nervousness, nausea, diarrhea, tremors) to severe (sweating, fever, confusion).
There are several factors that can cause serotonin levels to fall too low:
How to Boost Serotonin Naturally
While the body can make serotonin on its own, sometimes it doesn’t make enough to keep the brain and other systems functioning optimally. If serotonin levels are low, your risk of depression, anxiety increases, and other problems can occur.
Here are some ways you can increase serotonin naturally.
Verywell / Zoe Hansen
Eat Tryptophan-Rich Foods
However, serotonin cannot cross theblood-brain barrier(a protective group of tightly packed cells that keep harmful substances from entering the brain), so eating foods with serotonin is not an effective way to raise serotonin levels.
Instead, it’s better to eat foods rich in the essential amino acid tryptophan, which can pass through the blood-brain barrier.
Examples of foods high in tryptophan include:
Studies suggest that increasing tryptophan intake can have a positive effect on mood and well-being, especially in individuals with tryptophan depletion.
It’s recommended that you consume tryptophan-rich foods with carbohydrates such as bread, pasta, rice, or fruit. That’s because carbs trigger an insulin response that can help carry tryptophan over the blood-brain barrier.TheDietary Guidelines for Americanscurrently recommends between 225 and 325 grams of carbs per day for adults.
Tryptophan-rich snacks include chicken and cheese roll-ups, granola with peanuts and chocolate chips, a tuna fish sandwich, a bowl of oatmeal with pineapple, and a peanut butter sandwich with a glass of milk.
Foods to AvoidCertain foods are known to deplete serotonin levels, interfere with their synthesis, or disrupt serotonin signaling in the brain. These include:AlcoholCaffeineArtificial sweeteners, likeaspartameHigh-fructose syrups, sodas, and juices
Foods to Avoid
Certain foods are known to deplete serotonin levels, interfere with their synthesis, or disrupt serotonin signaling in the brain. These include:AlcoholCaffeineArtificial sweeteners, likeaspartameHigh-fructose syrups, sodas, and juices
Certain foods are known to deplete serotonin levels, interfere with their synthesis, or disrupt serotonin signaling in the brain. These include:
It is well known that exercise is good for mental health. Physical activity promotes the release of several “feel-good” chemicals, including serotonin andendorphins(the hormones responsible for a “runner’s high”). This effect may reduce the risk of depression in those who regularly exercise.
Try some of these exercises to give yourself a serotonin boost:
If those activities are not suitable for you, you can also get benefits from low-impact activities such as taking a brisk walk, water aerobics, and gardening activities like weeding or raking.
Try Probiotics
An estimated 95% of the body’s serotonin is produced in the gut. Beneficial bacteria found in the gut (probiotics) secrete substances used in the creation of serotonin.
Research suggests that consuming foods rich in probiotics helps increase good gut bacteria, which positively influences serotonin production. In several recent studies, probiotic consumption was associated with fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Probiotic-rich foods include:
Can Mushrooms Reduce Anxiety and Depression?
Get 15 Minutes of Sunlight
When the skin is exposed to sunlight, it also converts the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays intovitamin D. Vitamin D plays an important role in the production and activation of serotonin. A 2021 study inPloS Onefound that increased sun exposure was associated with reduced depression symptoms in elderly women.
Experts say that 10 to 15 minutes of sun exposure each day is enough to maintain adequate vitamin D levels in most people. If this is not possible, supplements are also available. (The body can still produce vitamin D even when you’re wearing sunscreen.)
UVB Radiation and SerotoninStudies have shown that long-term, moderate exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation can increase serotonin levels and decrease depression.In fact, a 2023 study in theInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Healthreported that as little as four-and-a-half hours of direct sun exposure per month (roughly nine minutes per day) was linked to improvements in clinical depression.
UVB Radiation and Serotonin
Studies have shown that long-term, moderate exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation can increase serotonin levels and decrease depression.In fact, a 2023 study in theInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Healthreported that as little as four-and-a-half hours of direct sun exposure per month (roughly nine minutes per day) was linked to improvements in clinical depression.
Studies have shown that long-term, moderate exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation can increase serotonin levels and decrease depression.
In fact, a 2023 study in theInternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Healthreported that as little as four-and-a-half hours of direct sun exposure per month (roughly nine minutes per day) was linked to improvements in clinical depression.
In the absence of direct sunlight (such as when winter daylight hours are short), light therapy might serve as an effective alternative. This involves sitting next to alight box or lampfor an allotted time each day.The practice is reported to be “moderately effective” in treating non-seasonal depression, according to a 2016 review from McMaster University in Canada.
Try Adaptogenic Herbs
Adaptogens are extracts used in herbal medicine that help the body deal with stress from anxiety, fatigue, trauma, or infection. The herbs are thought to help keep the body’s systems, including thehormone system, in a state of equilibrium (homeostasis).
Safety Considerations
While unlikely, there have been reports of a potentially deadly drug reaction called serotonin syndrome that can occur when people on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) antidepressants overuse supplements. One incident involved a 28-year-old man on Zoloft (sertraline) who took “tons” of supplements for weight loss and ended up needing emergency treatment.
Change Your Thoughts
Thinking about something that makes you happy can actually boost your serotonin levels, according to research.
Admittedly, it can be hard for some people to just think happy thoughts, especially if you have depression. But there are several things you can do to help you think more positively:
If you struggle with changing your thinking, consider pursuingcognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)with a certified therapist. Working with a therapist can help to alter your thought processes so that you don’t automatically turn to negative thoughts.
Get Enough Sleep
Chronic sleep problems are associated with anxiety, depression, loss of concentration, and reduced cognition. Sleep deprivation interferes with the normal transmission of serotonin and instead triggers a type of receptor in the brain called the 5-HT2A receptor.
The 5-HT2A receptor is the same receptor that gets activated if you take a hallucinatory drug or have a mental condition likeschizophrenia. The activation of these receptors in sleep-deprived individuals can mimic many of the same symptoms and get progressively worse—even triggeringpsychosis—if the sleep loss is severe.
Manage Your Stress Levels
Chronic stress negatively impacts serotonin production and impairs the function of serotonin receptors.Stress management, in contrast, can play an important role in maintaining optimal serotonin levels.
Here are some study-backedstress-relieving techniquesto try:
While it’s not easy to eliminate stress from everyday life, these simple stress management techniques can go a long way in helping you feel better.
Consider Massage Therapy
Massage therapy is a great way to decrease stress, but there is also evidence that therapeutic hands-on massage can not only increase serotonin levels but also another “feel-good” hormone calleddopamine.
Massage also appears to decrease the stress hormonecortisolwhich is linked to an increased risk of depression and anxiety.
There are numerous types of massage therapy. Some (like aromatherapy massage, Shiatsu, and Thai massage) are largely focused on stress relief, while others (like trigger point massage and sports massage) can also target more serious nerve ormusculoskeletalproblems.
Engage in Social Interaction
Human biology is such that behaviors essential to survival—such as eating, sleeping, and sex—trigger the “pleasure center” of the brain, called theorbitofrontal cortex.If it feels good to engage in these behaviors, we will make every effort to pursue and repeat them.
Social interaction falls into this same category of behaviors. Healthy interactions with others promote the brain’s release of serotonin, dopamine, and endorphins, while unhealthy or hostile ones can either decrease these hormones or leave them unchanged.
Medications That Increase Serotonin Levels
Serotonin can be boosted synthetically, too. Antidepressants are a common line of treatment for depressive symptoms that may be due to low serotonin levels. There are several different kinds of antidepressants including:
These antidepressants can help boost serotonin levels. They may also have side effects, though they can be mild and usually don’t last long, such as:
Sometimes people need to try a few different meds to find the antidepressant that works for them. Talk with your healthcare provider about any side effects you develop, and work with them to find the best fit.
Summary
Increasing serotonin levels can be done naturally. The best ways to do this include eating well, getting out in the sun or supplementing with vitamin D, exercising, taking adaptogens, and managing stress.
Serotonin can also be increased synthetically with antidepressants. While increasing serotonin is important for relieving depressive symptoms and improving mood, it’s not about getting as much serotonin as you can. Too much can also be harmful to your health. Finding the right balance is key.
39 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Hormone Health Network.Brain hormones.Weng, R., Shen, S., Tian, Y.et al.Metabolomics approach reveals integrated metabolic network associated with serotonin deficiency.Sci Rep5, 11864 (2015). doi: 10.1038/srep11864Cowen PJ, Browning M.What has serotonin to do with depression?World Psychiatry. 2015;14(2):158-160. doi:10.1002/wps.20229Patrick RP, Ames BN.Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior.FASEB J. 2015;29(6):2207-2222. doi:10.1096/fj.14-268342Vlainić JV, Šuran J, Vlainić T, Vukorep AL.Probiotics as an adjuvant therapy in major depressive disorder.Curr Neuropharmacol. 2016;14(8):952-958. doi:10.2174/1570159x14666160526120928Yohn CN, Gergues MM, Samuels BA.The role of 5-HT receptors in depression.Mol Brain. 2017;10(1):28. doi:10.1186/s13041-017-0306-yGonçalves AC, Nunes AR, Alves G, Silva LR.Serotonin and melatonin: plant sources, analytical methods, and human health benefits.Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2021;31(2):162-175. doi:10.1007/s43450-021-00141-wShabbir F, Patel A, Mattison C, et al.Effect of diet on serotonergic neurotransmission in depression.Neurochem Int. 2013;62(3):324-329. doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2012.12.014Richard DM, Dawes MA, Mathias CE, Acheson A, Hill-Kapturczak, McDougherty DM.L-tryptophan: basic metabolic functions, behavioral research and therapeutic indications.Int J Tryptophan Res.2009;2:45–60, doi:10.4137/ijtr.s2129Kikuchi AM, Tanabe A, Iwahori Y.A systematic review of the effect of L-tryptophan supplementation on mood and emotional functioning.J Diet Suppl. 2021;18(3):316-333. doi:10.1080/19390211.2020.1746725U.S. Department of Agriculture.Chapter 4: adults. In:Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.Ketcherside A, Matthews I, Filbey F.The serotonin link between alcohol use and affective disorders.J Addict Prev.2013;1(2):3.Lee JB, Kim TW.Ingestion of caffeine links dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine release during half immersion in 42°C hot water in a humans.J Exerc Rehabil.2019 Aug;15(4):571–575. doi:10.12965/jer.1938236.118Choudhary AK, Lee YY.Neurophysiological symptoms and aspartame: what is the connection?Nutr Neurosci. 2018 Jun;21(5):306-316. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2017.1288340Lowette K, Desmet AS, Farre RM, Tack J, Vanden Berghe P.Fructose consumption impairs serotonergic signaling in the murine enteric nervous system.Neurogastroenterol Motil.2016 Sep;28(9):1438-42. doi:10.1111/nmo.12827Bennie JA, Teychenne MJ, De Cocker K, Biddle SJH.Associations between aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercise with depressive symptom severity among 17,839 U.S. adults.Prev Med. 2019;121:121-127. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.02.022Taylor AM, Holscher HD.A review of dietary and microbial connections to depression, anxiety, and stress.Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(3):237-250. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2018.1493808van der Rhee HJ, de Vries E, Coebergh JW.Regular sun exposure benefits health.Med Hypotheses. 2016;97:34-37. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2016.10.011Cui Y, Gong Q, Huang C, et al.The relationship between sunlight exposure duration and depressive symptoms: A cross-sectional study on elderly Chinese women.PLoS One. 2021;16(7):e0254856. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254856Emamjomeh S, Segura LE, Cotter JA, Schick EE.Acute ultraviolet light exposure and post-resistance exercise serum testosterone: a pilot study in older men.Int J Exerc Sci.2020;13(2):607–614.Luo CW, Chen SP, Chiang CY, et al.Association between ultraviolet B exposure levels and depression in Taiwanese adults: a nested case–control study.Int J Environ Res Public Health.2022 Jun;19(11):6846. doi:10.3390/ijerph19116846Oldham MA, Ciraulo DA.Bright light therapy for depression: a review of its effects on chronobiology and the autonomic nervous system.Chronobiol Int. 2014;31(3):305-319. doi:10.3109/07420528.2013.833935Perera S, Eisen R, Bhatt M, et al.Light therapy for non-seasonal depression: systematic review and meta-analysis.BJPsych Open.2016 Mar;2(2):116–126. doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.001610Amsterdam JD, Panossian AG.Rhodiola rosea L. as a putative botanical antidepressant.Phytomedicine. 2016;23(7):770-783. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2016.02.009Lee S, Rhee DK.Effects of ginseng on stress-related depression, anxiety, and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. J Ginseng Res. 2017;41(4):589-594. doi:10.1016/j.jgr.2017.01.010National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.Ashwagandha.Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).Galeotti N.Hypericum perforatum (St John’s wort) beyond depression: a therapeutic perspective for pain conditions.J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;200:136-146. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.016Liao Y, Xie B, Zhang H, et al.Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: a meta-analysis.Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9(1):190. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0515-5Patel YA, Marzella N.Dietary supplement-drug interaction-induced serotonin syndrome progressing to acute compartment syndrome.Am J Case Rep.2017;18:926–930. doi:10.12659/AJCR.904375Matsunaga M, Ishii K, Ohtsubo Y, Noguchi Y, Ochi M, Yamasue H.Association between salivary serotonin and the social sharing of happiness.PLoS One. 2017;12(7):e0180391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180391Zhao X, Ozols AB, Meyers KT, et al.Acute sleep deprivation upregulates serotonin 2A receptors in the frontal cortex of mice via the immediate early gene Egr3.Mol Psychiatry.2022 Mar;27(3):1599-1610. doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01390-wCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.About sleep.Mahar I, Bambico FR, Mechawar N, Nobrega JN.Stress, serotonin, and hippocampal neurogenesis in relation to depression and antidepressant effects.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;38:173-192. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.009Arnold MM, Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Hemrich N, Bonsch D.Effects of psychoactive massage in outpatients with depressive disorders: a randomized controlled mixed-methods study.Brain Sci.2020 Oct;10(10):676. doi:10.3390/brainsci101006764Duerler P, Vollenweider FX, Preller KH.A neurobiological perspective on social influence: serotonin and social adaptation.J Neurochem.2022 Jul;162(1):60–79. doi:10.1111/jnc.15607University of Uniformed Services.Social fitness and performance – Part 1: Impact on brain and overall health.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Depression medicines.MedlinePlus.Antidepressants.
39 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Hormone Health Network.Brain hormones.Weng, R., Shen, S., Tian, Y.et al.Metabolomics approach reveals integrated metabolic network associated with serotonin deficiency.Sci Rep5, 11864 (2015). doi: 10.1038/srep11864Cowen PJ, Browning M.What has serotonin to do with depression?World Psychiatry. 2015;14(2):158-160. doi:10.1002/wps.20229Patrick RP, Ames BN.Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior.FASEB J. 2015;29(6):2207-2222. doi:10.1096/fj.14-268342Vlainić JV, Šuran J, Vlainić T, Vukorep AL.Probiotics as an adjuvant therapy in major depressive disorder.Curr Neuropharmacol. 2016;14(8):952-958. doi:10.2174/1570159x14666160526120928Yohn CN, Gergues MM, Samuels BA.The role of 5-HT receptors in depression.Mol Brain. 2017;10(1):28. doi:10.1186/s13041-017-0306-yGonçalves AC, Nunes AR, Alves G, Silva LR.Serotonin and melatonin: plant sources, analytical methods, and human health benefits.Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2021;31(2):162-175. doi:10.1007/s43450-021-00141-wShabbir F, Patel A, Mattison C, et al.Effect of diet on serotonergic neurotransmission in depression.Neurochem Int. 2013;62(3):324-329. doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2012.12.014Richard DM, Dawes MA, Mathias CE, Acheson A, Hill-Kapturczak, McDougherty DM.L-tryptophan: basic metabolic functions, behavioral research and therapeutic indications.Int J Tryptophan Res.2009;2:45–60, doi:10.4137/ijtr.s2129Kikuchi AM, Tanabe A, Iwahori Y.A systematic review of the effect of L-tryptophan supplementation on mood and emotional functioning.J Diet Suppl. 2021;18(3):316-333. doi:10.1080/19390211.2020.1746725U.S. Department of Agriculture.Chapter 4: adults. In:Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.Ketcherside A, Matthews I, Filbey F.The serotonin link between alcohol use and affective disorders.J Addict Prev.2013;1(2):3.Lee JB, Kim TW.Ingestion of caffeine links dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine release during half immersion in 42°C hot water in a humans.J Exerc Rehabil.2019 Aug;15(4):571–575. doi:10.12965/jer.1938236.118Choudhary AK, Lee YY.Neurophysiological symptoms and aspartame: what is the connection?Nutr Neurosci. 2018 Jun;21(5):306-316. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2017.1288340Lowette K, Desmet AS, Farre RM, Tack J, Vanden Berghe P.Fructose consumption impairs serotonergic signaling in the murine enteric nervous system.Neurogastroenterol Motil.2016 Sep;28(9):1438-42. doi:10.1111/nmo.12827Bennie JA, Teychenne MJ, De Cocker K, Biddle SJH.Associations between aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercise with depressive symptom severity among 17,839 U.S. adults.Prev Med. 2019;121:121-127. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.02.022Taylor AM, Holscher HD.A review of dietary and microbial connections to depression, anxiety, and stress.Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(3):237-250. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2018.1493808van der Rhee HJ, de Vries E, Coebergh JW.Regular sun exposure benefits health.Med Hypotheses. 2016;97:34-37. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2016.10.011Cui Y, Gong Q, Huang C, et al.The relationship between sunlight exposure duration and depressive symptoms: A cross-sectional study on elderly Chinese women.PLoS One. 2021;16(7):e0254856. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254856Emamjomeh S, Segura LE, Cotter JA, Schick EE.Acute ultraviolet light exposure and post-resistance exercise serum testosterone: a pilot study in older men.Int J Exerc Sci.2020;13(2):607–614.Luo CW, Chen SP, Chiang CY, et al.Association between ultraviolet B exposure levels and depression in Taiwanese adults: a nested case–control study.Int J Environ Res Public Health.2022 Jun;19(11):6846. doi:10.3390/ijerph19116846Oldham MA, Ciraulo DA.Bright light therapy for depression: a review of its effects on chronobiology and the autonomic nervous system.Chronobiol Int. 2014;31(3):305-319. doi:10.3109/07420528.2013.833935Perera S, Eisen R, Bhatt M, et al.Light therapy for non-seasonal depression: systematic review and meta-analysis.BJPsych Open.2016 Mar;2(2):116–126. doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.001610Amsterdam JD, Panossian AG.Rhodiola rosea L. as a putative botanical antidepressant.Phytomedicine. 2016;23(7):770-783. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2016.02.009Lee S, Rhee DK.Effects of ginseng on stress-related depression, anxiety, and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. J Ginseng Res. 2017;41(4):589-594. doi:10.1016/j.jgr.2017.01.010National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.Ashwagandha.Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).Galeotti N.Hypericum perforatum (St John’s wort) beyond depression: a therapeutic perspective for pain conditions.J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;200:136-146. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.016Liao Y, Xie B, Zhang H, et al.Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: a meta-analysis.Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9(1):190. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0515-5Patel YA, Marzella N.Dietary supplement-drug interaction-induced serotonin syndrome progressing to acute compartment syndrome.Am J Case Rep.2017;18:926–930. doi:10.12659/AJCR.904375Matsunaga M, Ishii K, Ohtsubo Y, Noguchi Y, Ochi M, Yamasue H.Association between salivary serotonin and the social sharing of happiness.PLoS One. 2017;12(7):e0180391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180391Zhao X, Ozols AB, Meyers KT, et al.Acute sleep deprivation upregulates serotonin 2A receptors in the frontal cortex of mice via the immediate early gene Egr3.Mol Psychiatry.2022 Mar;27(3):1599-1610. doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01390-wCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.About sleep.Mahar I, Bambico FR, Mechawar N, Nobrega JN.Stress, serotonin, and hippocampal neurogenesis in relation to depression and antidepressant effects.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;38:173-192. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.009Arnold MM, Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Hemrich N, Bonsch D.Effects of psychoactive massage in outpatients with depressive disorders: a randomized controlled mixed-methods study.Brain Sci.2020 Oct;10(10):676. doi:10.3390/brainsci101006764Duerler P, Vollenweider FX, Preller KH.A neurobiological perspective on social influence: serotonin and social adaptation.J Neurochem.2022 Jul;162(1):60–79. doi:10.1111/jnc.15607University of Uniformed Services.Social fitness and performance – Part 1: Impact on brain and overall health.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Depression medicines.MedlinePlus.Antidepressants.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Hormone Health Network.Brain hormones.Weng, R., Shen, S., Tian, Y.et al.Metabolomics approach reveals integrated metabolic network associated with serotonin deficiency.Sci Rep5, 11864 (2015). doi: 10.1038/srep11864Cowen PJ, Browning M.What has serotonin to do with depression?World Psychiatry. 2015;14(2):158-160. doi:10.1002/wps.20229Patrick RP, Ames BN.Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior.FASEB J. 2015;29(6):2207-2222. doi:10.1096/fj.14-268342Vlainić JV, Šuran J, Vlainić T, Vukorep AL.Probiotics as an adjuvant therapy in major depressive disorder.Curr Neuropharmacol. 2016;14(8):952-958. doi:10.2174/1570159x14666160526120928Yohn CN, Gergues MM, Samuels BA.The role of 5-HT receptors in depression.Mol Brain. 2017;10(1):28. doi:10.1186/s13041-017-0306-yGonçalves AC, Nunes AR, Alves G, Silva LR.Serotonin and melatonin: plant sources, analytical methods, and human health benefits.Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2021;31(2):162-175. doi:10.1007/s43450-021-00141-wShabbir F, Patel A, Mattison C, et al.Effect of diet on serotonergic neurotransmission in depression.Neurochem Int. 2013;62(3):324-329. doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2012.12.014Richard DM, Dawes MA, Mathias CE, Acheson A, Hill-Kapturczak, McDougherty DM.L-tryptophan: basic metabolic functions, behavioral research and therapeutic indications.Int J Tryptophan Res.2009;2:45–60, doi:10.4137/ijtr.s2129Kikuchi AM, Tanabe A, Iwahori Y.A systematic review of the effect of L-tryptophan supplementation on mood and emotional functioning.J Diet Suppl. 2021;18(3):316-333. doi:10.1080/19390211.2020.1746725U.S. Department of Agriculture.Chapter 4: adults. In:Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.Ketcherside A, Matthews I, Filbey F.The serotonin link between alcohol use and affective disorders.J Addict Prev.2013;1(2):3.Lee JB, Kim TW.Ingestion of caffeine links dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine release during half immersion in 42°C hot water in a humans.J Exerc Rehabil.2019 Aug;15(4):571–575. doi:10.12965/jer.1938236.118Choudhary AK, Lee YY.Neurophysiological symptoms and aspartame: what is the connection?Nutr Neurosci. 2018 Jun;21(5):306-316. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2017.1288340Lowette K, Desmet AS, Farre RM, Tack J, Vanden Berghe P.Fructose consumption impairs serotonergic signaling in the murine enteric nervous system.Neurogastroenterol Motil.2016 Sep;28(9):1438-42. doi:10.1111/nmo.12827Bennie JA, Teychenne MJ, De Cocker K, Biddle SJH.Associations between aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercise with depressive symptom severity among 17,839 U.S. adults.Prev Med. 2019;121:121-127. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.02.022Taylor AM, Holscher HD.A review of dietary and microbial connections to depression, anxiety, and stress.Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(3):237-250. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2018.1493808van der Rhee HJ, de Vries E, Coebergh JW.Regular sun exposure benefits health.Med Hypotheses. 2016;97:34-37. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2016.10.011Cui Y, Gong Q, Huang C, et al.The relationship between sunlight exposure duration and depressive symptoms: A cross-sectional study on elderly Chinese women.PLoS One. 2021;16(7):e0254856. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254856Emamjomeh S, Segura LE, Cotter JA, Schick EE.Acute ultraviolet light exposure and post-resistance exercise serum testosterone: a pilot study in older men.Int J Exerc Sci.2020;13(2):607–614.Luo CW, Chen SP, Chiang CY, et al.Association between ultraviolet B exposure levels and depression in Taiwanese adults: a nested case–control study.Int J Environ Res Public Health.2022 Jun;19(11):6846. doi:10.3390/ijerph19116846Oldham MA, Ciraulo DA.Bright light therapy for depression: a review of its effects on chronobiology and the autonomic nervous system.Chronobiol Int. 2014;31(3):305-319. doi:10.3109/07420528.2013.833935Perera S, Eisen R, Bhatt M, et al.Light therapy for non-seasonal depression: systematic review and meta-analysis.BJPsych Open.2016 Mar;2(2):116–126. doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.001610Amsterdam JD, Panossian AG.Rhodiola rosea L. as a putative botanical antidepressant.Phytomedicine. 2016;23(7):770-783. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2016.02.009Lee S, Rhee DK.Effects of ginseng on stress-related depression, anxiety, and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. J Ginseng Res. 2017;41(4):589-594. doi:10.1016/j.jgr.2017.01.010National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.Ashwagandha.Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).Galeotti N.Hypericum perforatum (St John’s wort) beyond depression: a therapeutic perspective for pain conditions.J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;200:136-146. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.016Liao Y, Xie B, Zhang H, et al.Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: a meta-analysis.Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9(1):190. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0515-5Patel YA, Marzella N.Dietary supplement-drug interaction-induced serotonin syndrome progressing to acute compartment syndrome.Am J Case Rep.2017;18:926–930. doi:10.12659/AJCR.904375Matsunaga M, Ishii K, Ohtsubo Y, Noguchi Y, Ochi M, Yamasue H.Association between salivary serotonin and the social sharing of happiness.PLoS One. 2017;12(7):e0180391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180391Zhao X, Ozols AB, Meyers KT, et al.Acute sleep deprivation upregulates serotonin 2A receptors in the frontal cortex of mice via the immediate early gene Egr3.Mol Psychiatry.2022 Mar;27(3):1599-1610. doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01390-wCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.About sleep.Mahar I, Bambico FR, Mechawar N, Nobrega JN.Stress, serotonin, and hippocampal neurogenesis in relation to depression and antidepressant effects.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;38:173-192. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.009Arnold MM, Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Hemrich N, Bonsch D.Effects of psychoactive massage in outpatients with depressive disorders: a randomized controlled mixed-methods study.Brain Sci.2020 Oct;10(10):676. doi:10.3390/brainsci101006764Duerler P, Vollenweider FX, Preller KH.A neurobiological perspective on social influence: serotonin and social adaptation.J Neurochem.2022 Jul;162(1):60–79. doi:10.1111/jnc.15607University of Uniformed Services.Social fitness and performance – Part 1: Impact on brain and overall health.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Depression medicines.MedlinePlus.Antidepressants.
Hormone Health Network.Brain hormones.
Weng, R., Shen, S., Tian, Y.et al.Metabolomics approach reveals integrated metabolic network associated with serotonin deficiency.Sci Rep5, 11864 (2015). doi: 10.1038/srep11864
Cowen PJ, Browning M.What has serotonin to do with depression?World Psychiatry. 2015;14(2):158-160. doi:10.1002/wps.20229
Patrick RP, Ames BN.Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior.FASEB J. 2015;29(6):2207-2222. doi:10.1096/fj.14-268342
Vlainić JV, Šuran J, Vlainić T, Vukorep AL.Probiotics as an adjuvant therapy in major depressive disorder.Curr Neuropharmacol. 2016;14(8):952-958. doi:10.2174/1570159x14666160526120928
Yohn CN, Gergues MM, Samuels BA.The role of 5-HT receptors in depression.Mol Brain. 2017;10(1):28. doi:10.1186/s13041-017-0306-y
Gonçalves AC, Nunes AR, Alves G, Silva LR.Serotonin and melatonin: plant sources, analytical methods, and human health benefits.Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2021;31(2):162-175. doi:10.1007/s43450-021-00141-w
Shabbir F, Patel A, Mattison C, et al.Effect of diet on serotonergic neurotransmission in depression.Neurochem Int. 2013;62(3):324-329. doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2012.12.014
Richard DM, Dawes MA, Mathias CE, Acheson A, Hill-Kapturczak, McDougherty DM.L-tryptophan: basic metabolic functions, behavioral research and therapeutic indications.Int J Tryptophan Res.2009;2:45–60, doi:10.4137/ijtr.s2129
Kikuchi AM, Tanabe A, Iwahori Y.A systematic review of the effect of L-tryptophan supplementation on mood and emotional functioning.J Diet Suppl. 2021;18(3):316-333. doi:10.1080/19390211.2020.1746725
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Chapter 4: adults. In:Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025.
Ketcherside A, Matthews I, Filbey F.The serotonin link between alcohol use and affective disorders.J Addict Prev.2013;1(2):3.
Lee JB, Kim TW.Ingestion of caffeine links dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine release during half immersion in 42°C hot water in a humans.J Exerc Rehabil.2019 Aug;15(4):571–575. doi:10.12965/jer.1938236.118
Choudhary AK, Lee YY.Neurophysiological symptoms and aspartame: what is the connection?Nutr Neurosci. 2018 Jun;21(5):306-316. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2017.1288340
Lowette K, Desmet AS, Farre RM, Tack J, Vanden Berghe P.Fructose consumption impairs serotonergic signaling in the murine enteric nervous system.Neurogastroenterol Motil.2016 Sep;28(9):1438-42. doi:10.1111/nmo.12827
Bennie JA, Teychenne MJ, De Cocker K, Biddle SJH.Associations between aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercise with depressive symptom severity among 17,839 U.S. adults.Prev Med. 2019;121:121-127. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.02.022
Taylor AM, Holscher HD.A review of dietary and microbial connections to depression, anxiety, and stress.Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(3):237-250. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2018.1493808
van der Rhee HJ, de Vries E, Coebergh JW.Regular sun exposure benefits health.Med Hypotheses. 2016;97:34-37. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2016.10.011
Cui Y, Gong Q, Huang C, et al.The relationship between sunlight exposure duration and depressive symptoms: A cross-sectional study on elderly Chinese women.PLoS One. 2021;16(7):e0254856. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254856
Emamjomeh S, Segura LE, Cotter JA, Schick EE.Acute ultraviolet light exposure and post-resistance exercise serum testosterone: a pilot study in older men.Int J Exerc Sci.2020;13(2):607–614.
Luo CW, Chen SP, Chiang CY, et al.Association between ultraviolet B exposure levels and depression in Taiwanese adults: a nested case–control study.Int J Environ Res Public Health.2022 Jun;19(11):6846. doi:10.3390/ijerph19116846
Oldham MA, Ciraulo DA.Bright light therapy for depression: a review of its effects on chronobiology and the autonomic nervous system.Chronobiol Int. 2014;31(3):305-319. doi:10.3109/07420528.2013.833935
Perera S, Eisen R, Bhatt M, et al.Light therapy for non-seasonal depression: systematic review and meta-analysis.BJPsych Open.2016 Mar;2(2):116–126. doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.001610
Amsterdam JD, Panossian AG.Rhodiola rosea L. as a putative botanical antidepressant.Phytomedicine. 2016;23(7):770-783. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2016.02.009
Lee S, Rhee DK.Effects of ginseng on stress-related depression, anxiety, and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. J Ginseng Res. 2017;41(4):589-594. doi:10.1016/j.jgr.2017.01.010
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.Ashwagandha.
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).
Galeotti N.Hypericum perforatum (St John’s wort) beyond depression: a therapeutic perspective for pain conditions.J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;200:136-146. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.016
Liao Y, Xie B, Zhang H, et al.Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: a meta-analysis.Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9(1):190. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0515-5
Patel YA, Marzella N.Dietary supplement-drug interaction-induced serotonin syndrome progressing to acute compartment syndrome.Am J Case Rep.2017;18:926–930. doi:10.12659/AJCR.904375
Matsunaga M, Ishii K, Ohtsubo Y, Noguchi Y, Ochi M, Yamasue H.Association between salivary serotonin and the social sharing of happiness.PLoS One. 2017;12(7):e0180391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180391
Zhao X, Ozols AB, Meyers KT, et al.Acute sleep deprivation upregulates serotonin 2A receptors in the frontal cortex of mice via the immediate early gene Egr3.Mol Psychiatry.2022 Mar;27(3):1599-1610. doi:10.1038/s41380-021-01390-w
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About sleep.
Mahar I, Bambico FR, Mechawar N, Nobrega JN.Stress, serotonin, and hippocampal neurogenesis in relation to depression and antidepressant effects.Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;38:173-192. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.009
Arnold MM, Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Hemrich N, Bonsch D.Effects of psychoactive massage in outpatients with depressive disorders: a randomized controlled mixed-methods study.Brain Sci.2020 Oct;10(10):676. doi:10.3390/brainsci101006764
Duerler P, Vollenweider FX, Preller KH.A neurobiological perspective on social influence: serotonin and social adaptation.J Neurochem.2022 Jul;162(1):60–79. doi:10.1111/jnc.15607
University of Uniformed Services.Social fitness and performance – Part 1: Impact on brain and overall health.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Depression medicines.
MedlinePlus.Antidepressants.
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