Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhat Is Gut Flora?DevelopmentLocationFunctionsWhat Affects Gut Flora?SymptomsAssociated Health ConditionsTreatmentImproving Gut Flora
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
What Is Gut Flora?
Development
Location
Functions
What Affects Gut Flora?
Symptoms
Associated Health Conditions
Treatment
Improving Gut Flora
The gut flora supports your immune system, helps metabolism, and affects brain health.
In medicine, “flora” is the term for microorganisms on or within the human body, such as the gut flora—also called the gutmicrobiotaand gut microbiome. When talking about flora in the context of the human body, the term refers to bacteria, yeast, and other fungi.
The gut flora has many functions and can negatively affect health when it’s out of balance. Maintaining a healthy gut is important to your overall health.
jamesbenet / Getty Images
Gut flora refers to the world of microorganisms, predominantly bacteria, that populate our intestines. There are about 100 trillion such organisms in each human gastrointestinal (GI) tract.A variety of names are used to refer to this inner population of bacteria, fungi, viruses, andprotozoa:
Research has been increasingly focused on trying to understand the role that gut flora plays in human health. It has become exceedingly apparent that the gut flora plays an important role in both our health and our vulnerability to disease.
The substances secreted through the process of digestion affect where gut bacteria develop. Stomach acid, bile acid, andpancreatic enzymestypically prevent the colonization of bacteria in the stomach or the beginning section of the small intestine.
Therefore, gut bacteria are found to some extent in the last part of your small intestine, but overwhelmingly they’re located in your large intestine. It is estimated that there are more than a thousand types of microbes in your body.A 2015 study reported that these microbes make up anywhere from 25% to 54% of your stool.
This world of microorganisms is separated internally from your body through a single layer of cells on your large intestine—known as epithelial cells.
Functions of the Gut Flora
As mentioned, your gut flora is a key player in your health. Its most important roles have to do with immune system protection, metabolism, and brain health. For these important functions, there needs to be an optimal amount of “friendly” bacteria.
Supports the Immune System
There appear to be two ways in which our gut bacteria support our immune system. The first is that helpful bacteria provide direct protection for the lining of our large intestines, keeping out substances that would be harmful to us.
The second way is that favorable gut bacteria work with the immune system at the level of the lining of our intestines to fight against disease-causing bacteria or other substances.
Helps Metabolism
Our gut flora plays an important role in providing us with vitamins and other nutrients essential to our health. The microbiome also interacts with carbohydrates that were not digested in the small intestine (such as resistant starch andFODMAPs). This interaction provides further nutrients, encourages epithelial cell growth, and modulates fat storage.
The gut microbiome is involved in the processing of dietary fiber, which leads to the production of helpful acids in the body, such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate. These in turn can help with:
Indolepropionic acid, also associated with gut flora and fiber intake, may reduce the risk oftype 2 diabetes.
The gut microbiota helps our bodies assimilate vitamins and is involved in the production of vitamins B and K.The B vitamins aid the body in making energy from the food we eat, as well as help form red blood cells.Vitamin K helps make proteins for blood clotting and for your bones and tissues.
Affects Brain Health
Gut flora plays an essential role in maintaining the function of the central nervous system, which includes your brain and spinal cord. For example, the microorganisms help with the generation of serotonin, which in turn affects many aspects of human behavior, including mood and mental health.Changes in gut microbiota have even been shown to increase anxiety in mice.
The gut flora can also regulate the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, which means guarding the brain from harmful blood-borne toxins. In some animal studies, an imbalance in the gut was shown to be an important factor in neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease and autism spectrum disorder.
Diet:Good bacteria in your gut need plant fibers to thrive, so they prefer a variety of whole foods, such as fruits, vegetables, beans, fermented foods, and whole grains. On the other hand, a diet high in sugar, saturated fats, and processed foods with additives is low in fiber and tends to increase the growth of less helpful microbes.
Environmental toxins:Substances like antibiotics, heavy metals, organic pollutants, pesticides, and particulate matter can wipe out good microbes and cause an overgrowth of pro-inflammatory microbes.Your gut microbiome can usually recover from temporary chemical exposure, but long-term exposure may make it difficult for certain microbes to grow and thrive.
GI Motility:This refers to the movement of your intestinal tract. Microbes break down undigested compounds into nutrients and then are eliminated with your poop. If the movement of food and waste through your GI tract is too fast (diarrhea), they don’t have time to do their jobs before being removed. If it’s too slow (constipation), they can overeat and overgrow, causing an increase in potentially pathogenic bacteria.
How Does Fermentation Work in the Body and in Food?
Symptoms of Unhealthy Gut Flora
An unhealthy balance of gut flora, also calleddysbiosis, can lead to the following digestive symptoms:
Dysbiosisoccurs when there is:
It is now recognized that imbalanced gut flora can contribute to health issues, both digestive and non-digestive. The primary health conditions directly related to dysbiosis include:
Other conditions that may be indirectly related to dysbiosis include:
Some medical treatments for dysbiosis may include:
How to Improve Gut Flora
Certain lifestyle changes can help optimize your gut flora. These include:
Summary
Your gut flora, also known as gut microbiota or gut microbiome, consists of trillions of microorganisms, predominantly bacteria. It plays a crucial role in your metabolism, immune system, and brain health.
An imbalance in gut flora, known as dysbiosis, can contribute to many health conditions, including diabetes, IBD, IBS, and lupus. To keep your gut balanced, consider lifestyle adjustments such as eating a fiber-rich diet, avoiding smoking, exercising, and minimizing antibiotic use.
30 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Valdes AM, Walter J, Segal E, Spector TD.Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health.BMJ. 2018;361:k2179. Published 2018 Jun 13. doi:10.1136/bmj.k2179Al Bander Z, Nitert MD, Mousa A, Naderpoor N.The gut microbiota and inflammation: An overview.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(20):7618. Published 2020 Oct 19. doi:10.3390/ijerph17207618Bull MJ, Plummer NT.Part 1: The human gut microbiome in health and disease.Integr Med (Encinitas).2014;13(6):17-22.Rose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E.The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology.Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2015;45(17):1827-1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761Peterson LW, Artis D.Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis.Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(3):141-53. doi:10.1038/nri3608Pant K, Venugopal SK, Lorenzo Pisarello MJ, Gradilone SA.The role of gut microbiome-derived short-chain fatty acid butyrate in hepatobiliary diseases. The American Journal of Pathology. 2023;193(10):1455-1467. doi: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2023.06.007Hernández MAG, Canfora EE, Jocken JWE, et al.The Short-Chain Fatty Acid Acetate in Body Weight Control and Insulin Sensitivity. Nutrients. 2019 Aug 18;11(8):1943. doi: 10.3390/nu11081943Tang R, Li L.Modulation of Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Potential Therapy Method for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2021 Jan 4;2021:6632266. doi: 10.1155/2021/6632266Ramírez-Pérez O, Cruz-Ramón V, Chinchilla-López P, et al.The role of the gut microbiota in bile acid metabolism. Annals of Hepatology. 2017;16:S21-S26. doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.5672Banaszak M, Górna I, Woźniak D, Przysławski J, Drzymała-Czyż S.Association between gut dysbiosis and the occurrence of SIBO, LIBO, SIFO and IMO.Microorganisms. 2023;11(3):573. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11030573MedlinePlus.B vitamins.MedlinePlus.Vitamin K.Appleton J.The Gut-Brain Axis: Influence of Microbiota on Mood and Mental Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2018 Aug;17(4):28-32. PMID: 31043907; PMCID: PMC6469458.Wang Y, Wang Z, Wang Y, et al.The gut-microglia connection: Implications for central nervous system diseases.Front Immunol. 2018;9:2325. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02325Martinez JE, Kahana DD, Ghuman S, et al.Unhealthy lifestyle and gut dysbiosis: A better understanding of the effects of poor diet and nicotine on the intestinal microbiome.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:667066. doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.667066Zhang P.Influence of Foods and Nutrition on the Gut Microbiome and Implications for Intestinal Health. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Aug 24;23(17):9588. doi: 10.3390/ijms23179588Jin Y, Wu S, Zeng Z, Fu Z.Effects of environmental pollutants on gut microbiota. Environmental Pollution. 2017;222:1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.045Vich Vila A, Collij V, Sanna S, et al.Impact of commonly used drugs on the composition and metabolic function of the gut microbiota.Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):362. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-14177-zPan R, Wang L, Xu X, et al.Crosstalk between the Gut Microbiome and Colonic Motility in Chronic Constipation: Potential Mechanisms and Microbiota Modulation. Nutrients. 2022 Sep 8;14(18):3704. doi: 10.3390/nu14183704DeGruttola AK, Low D, Mizoguchi A, et al.Current Understanding of Dysbiosis in Disease in Human and Animal Models. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2016 May;22(5):1137-50. doi: 10.1097/MIB.0000000000000750PENN Medicine.Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.Dahal RH, Kim S, Kim YK, et al.Insight into gut dysbiosis of patients with inflammatory bowel disease and ischemic colitis. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1174832. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1174832Lau K, Srivatsav V, Rizwan A, et al.Bridging the Gap between Gut Microbial Dysbiosis and Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients. 2017 Aug 10;9(8):859. doi: 10.3390/nu9080859Wang L, Alammar N, Singh R, et al.Gut Microbial Dysbiosis in the Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2020 Apr;120(4):565-586. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2019.05.015Clapp M, Aurora N, Herrera L, et al.Gut microbiota’s effect on mental health: The gut-brain axis. Clin Pract. 2017 Sep 15;7(4):987. doi: 10.4081/cp.2017.987Thomas A, Thomas A, Butler-Sanchez M.Dietary Modification for the Restoration of Gut Microbiome and Management of Symptoms in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2021 May 10;16(5):608-621. doi: 10.1177/15598276211012968Sachdev AH, Pimentel M.Gastrointestinal bacterial overgrowth: pathogenesis and clinical significance. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2013 Sep;4(5):223-31. doi: 10.1177/2040622313496126Bull MJ, Plummer NT.Part 2: Treatments for chronic gastrointestinal disease and gut dysbiosis.Integr Med (Encinitas). 2015;14(1):25-33.Davani-Davari D, Negahdoripour M, Karimzadeh I.Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications.Foods.2019 Mar;8(3):92. doi:10.3390/foods8030092Additional ReadingRose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E.The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology.Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2015;45(17):1827-1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761
30 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Valdes AM, Walter J, Segal E, Spector TD.Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health.BMJ. 2018;361:k2179. Published 2018 Jun 13. doi:10.1136/bmj.k2179Al Bander Z, Nitert MD, Mousa A, Naderpoor N.The gut microbiota and inflammation: An overview.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(20):7618. Published 2020 Oct 19. doi:10.3390/ijerph17207618Bull MJ, Plummer NT.Part 1: The human gut microbiome in health and disease.Integr Med (Encinitas).2014;13(6):17-22.Rose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E.The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology.Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2015;45(17):1827-1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761Peterson LW, Artis D.Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis.Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(3):141-53. doi:10.1038/nri3608Pant K, Venugopal SK, Lorenzo Pisarello MJ, Gradilone SA.The role of gut microbiome-derived short-chain fatty acid butyrate in hepatobiliary diseases. The American Journal of Pathology. 2023;193(10):1455-1467. doi: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2023.06.007Hernández MAG, Canfora EE, Jocken JWE, et al.The Short-Chain Fatty Acid Acetate in Body Weight Control and Insulin Sensitivity. Nutrients. 2019 Aug 18;11(8):1943. doi: 10.3390/nu11081943Tang R, Li L.Modulation of Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Potential Therapy Method for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2021 Jan 4;2021:6632266. doi: 10.1155/2021/6632266Ramírez-Pérez O, Cruz-Ramón V, Chinchilla-López P, et al.The role of the gut microbiota in bile acid metabolism. Annals of Hepatology. 2017;16:S21-S26. doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.5672Banaszak M, Górna I, Woźniak D, Przysławski J, Drzymała-Czyż S.Association between gut dysbiosis and the occurrence of SIBO, LIBO, SIFO and IMO.Microorganisms. 2023;11(3):573. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11030573MedlinePlus.B vitamins.MedlinePlus.Vitamin K.Appleton J.The Gut-Brain Axis: Influence of Microbiota on Mood and Mental Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2018 Aug;17(4):28-32. PMID: 31043907; PMCID: PMC6469458.Wang Y, Wang Z, Wang Y, et al.The gut-microglia connection: Implications for central nervous system diseases.Front Immunol. 2018;9:2325. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02325Martinez JE, Kahana DD, Ghuman S, et al.Unhealthy lifestyle and gut dysbiosis: A better understanding of the effects of poor diet and nicotine on the intestinal microbiome.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:667066. doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.667066Zhang P.Influence of Foods and Nutrition on the Gut Microbiome and Implications for Intestinal Health. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Aug 24;23(17):9588. doi: 10.3390/ijms23179588Jin Y, Wu S, Zeng Z, Fu Z.Effects of environmental pollutants on gut microbiota. Environmental Pollution. 2017;222:1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.045Vich Vila A, Collij V, Sanna S, et al.Impact of commonly used drugs on the composition and metabolic function of the gut microbiota.Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):362. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-14177-zPan R, Wang L, Xu X, et al.Crosstalk between the Gut Microbiome and Colonic Motility in Chronic Constipation: Potential Mechanisms and Microbiota Modulation. Nutrients. 2022 Sep 8;14(18):3704. doi: 10.3390/nu14183704DeGruttola AK, Low D, Mizoguchi A, et al.Current Understanding of Dysbiosis in Disease in Human and Animal Models. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2016 May;22(5):1137-50. doi: 10.1097/MIB.0000000000000750PENN Medicine.Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.Dahal RH, Kim S, Kim YK, et al.Insight into gut dysbiosis of patients with inflammatory bowel disease and ischemic colitis. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1174832. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1174832Lau K, Srivatsav V, Rizwan A, et al.Bridging the Gap between Gut Microbial Dysbiosis and Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients. 2017 Aug 10;9(8):859. doi: 10.3390/nu9080859Wang L, Alammar N, Singh R, et al.Gut Microbial Dysbiosis in the Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2020 Apr;120(4):565-586. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2019.05.015Clapp M, Aurora N, Herrera L, et al.Gut microbiota’s effect on mental health: The gut-brain axis. Clin Pract. 2017 Sep 15;7(4):987. doi: 10.4081/cp.2017.987Thomas A, Thomas A, Butler-Sanchez M.Dietary Modification for the Restoration of Gut Microbiome and Management of Symptoms in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2021 May 10;16(5):608-621. doi: 10.1177/15598276211012968Sachdev AH, Pimentel M.Gastrointestinal bacterial overgrowth: pathogenesis and clinical significance. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2013 Sep;4(5):223-31. doi: 10.1177/2040622313496126Bull MJ, Plummer NT.Part 2: Treatments for chronic gastrointestinal disease and gut dysbiosis.Integr Med (Encinitas). 2015;14(1):25-33.Davani-Davari D, Negahdoripour M, Karimzadeh I.Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications.Foods.2019 Mar;8(3):92. doi:10.3390/foods8030092Additional ReadingRose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E.The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology.Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2015;45(17):1827-1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Valdes AM, Walter J, Segal E, Spector TD.Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health.BMJ. 2018;361:k2179. Published 2018 Jun 13. doi:10.1136/bmj.k2179Al Bander Z, Nitert MD, Mousa A, Naderpoor N.The gut microbiota and inflammation: An overview.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(20):7618. Published 2020 Oct 19. doi:10.3390/ijerph17207618Bull MJ, Plummer NT.Part 1: The human gut microbiome in health and disease.Integr Med (Encinitas).2014;13(6):17-22.Rose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E.The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology.Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2015;45(17):1827-1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761Peterson LW, Artis D.Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis.Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(3):141-53. doi:10.1038/nri3608Pant K, Venugopal SK, Lorenzo Pisarello MJ, Gradilone SA.The role of gut microbiome-derived short-chain fatty acid butyrate in hepatobiliary diseases. The American Journal of Pathology. 2023;193(10):1455-1467. doi: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2023.06.007Hernández MAG, Canfora EE, Jocken JWE, et al.The Short-Chain Fatty Acid Acetate in Body Weight Control and Insulin Sensitivity. Nutrients. 2019 Aug 18;11(8):1943. doi: 10.3390/nu11081943Tang R, Li L.Modulation of Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Potential Therapy Method for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2021 Jan 4;2021:6632266. doi: 10.1155/2021/6632266Ramírez-Pérez O, Cruz-Ramón V, Chinchilla-López P, et al.The role of the gut microbiota in bile acid metabolism. Annals of Hepatology. 2017;16:S21-S26. doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.5672Banaszak M, Górna I, Woźniak D, Przysławski J, Drzymała-Czyż S.Association between gut dysbiosis and the occurrence of SIBO, LIBO, SIFO and IMO.Microorganisms. 2023;11(3):573. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11030573MedlinePlus.B vitamins.MedlinePlus.Vitamin K.Appleton J.The Gut-Brain Axis: Influence of Microbiota on Mood and Mental Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2018 Aug;17(4):28-32. PMID: 31043907; PMCID: PMC6469458.Wang Y, Wang Z, Wang Y, et al.The gut-microglia connection: Implications for central nervous system diseases.Front Immunol. 2018;9:2325. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02325Martinez JE, Kahana DD, Ghuman S, et al.Unhealthy lifestyle and gut dysbiosis: A better understanding of the effects of poor diet and nicotine on the intestinal microbiome.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:667066. doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.667066Zhang P.Influence of Foods and Nutrition on the Gut Microbiome and Implications for Intestinal Health. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Aug 24;23(17):9588. doi: 10.3390/ijms23179588Jin Y, Wu S, Zeng Z, Fu Z.Effects of environmental pollutants on gut microbiota. Environmental Pollution. 2017;222:1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.045Vich Vila A, Collij V, Sanna S, et al.Impact of commonly used drugs on the composition and metabolic function of the gut microbiota.Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):362. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-14177-zPan R, Wang L, Xu X, et al.Crosstalk between the Gut Microbiome and Colonic Motility in Chronic Constipation: Potential Mechanisms and Microbiota Modulation. Nutrients. 2022 Sep 8;14(18):3704. doi: 10.3390/nu14183704DeGruttola AK, Low D, Mizoguchi A, et al.Current Understanding of Dysbiosis in Disease in Human and Animal Models. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2016 May;22(5):1137-50. doi: 10.1097/MIB.0000000000000750PENN Medicine.Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.Dahal RH, Kim S, Kim YK, et al.Insight into gut dysbiosis of patients with inflammatory bowel disease and ischemic colitis. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1174832. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1174832Lau K, Srivatsav V, Rizwan A, et al.Bridging the Gap between Gut Microbial Dysbiosis and Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients. 2017 Aug 10;9(8):859. doi: 10.3390/nu9080859Wang L, Alammar N, Singh R, et al.Gut Microbial Dysbiosis in the Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2020 Apr;120(4):565-586. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2019.05.015Clapp M, Aurora N, Herrera L, et al.Gut microbiota’s effect on mental health: The gut-brain axis. Clin Pract. 2017 Sep 15;7(4):987. doi: 10.4081/cp.2017.987Thomas A, Thomas A, Butler-Sanchez M.Dietary Modification for the Restoration of Gut Microbiome and Management of Symptoms in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2021 May 10;16(5):608-621. doi: 10.1177/15598276211012968Sachdev AH, Pimentel M.Gastrointestinal bacterial overgrowth: pathogenesis and clinical significance. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2013 Sep;4(5):223-31. doi: 10.1177/2040622313496126Bull MJ, Plummer NT.Part 2: Treatments for chronic gastrointestinal disease and gut dysbiosis.Integr Med (Encinitas). 2015;14(1):25-33.Davani-Davari D, Negahdoripour M, Karimzadeh I.Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications.Foods.2019 Mar;8(3):92. doi:10.3390/foods8030092
Valdes AM, Walter J, Segal E, Spector TD.Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health.BMJ. 2018;361:k2179. Published 2018 Jun 13. doi:10.1136/bmj.k2179
Al Bander Z, Nitert MD, Mousa A, Naderpoor N.The gut microbiota and inflammation: An overview.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(20):7618. Published 2020 Oct 19. doi:10.3390/ijerph17207618
Bull MJ, Plummer NT.Part 1: The human gut microbiome in health and disease.Integr Med (Encinitas).2014;13(6):17-22.
Rose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E.The characterization of feces and urine: A review of the literature to inform advanced treatment technology.Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2015;45(17):1827-1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761
Peterson LW, Artis D.Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis.Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14(3):141-53. doi:10.1038/nri3608
Pant K, Venugopal SK, Lorenzo Pisarello MJ, Gradilone SA.The role of gut microbiome-derived short-chain fatty acid butyrate in hepatobiliary diseases. The American Journal of Pathology. 2023;193(10):1455-1467. doi: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2023.06.007
Hernández MAG, Canfora EE, Jocken JWE, et al.The Short-Chain Fatty Acid Acetate in Body Weight Control and Insulin Sensitivity. Nutrients. 2019 Aug 18;11(8):1943. doi: 10.3390/nu11081943
Tang R, Li L.Modulation of Short-Chain Fatty Acids as Potential Therapy Method for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2021 Jan 4;2021:6632266. doi: 10.1155/2021/6632266
Ramírez-Pérez O, Cruz-Ramón V, Chinchilla-López P, et al.The role of the gut microbiota in bile acid metabolism. Annals of Hepatology. 2017;16:S21-S26. doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.5672
Banaszak M, Górna I, Woźniak D, Przysławski J, Drzymała-Czyż S.Association between gut dysbiosis and the occurrence of SIBO, LIBO, SIFO and IMO.Microorganisms. 2023;11(3):573. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11030573
MedlinePlus.B vitamins.
MedlinePlus.Vitamin K.
Appleton J.The Gut-Brain Axis: Influence of Microbiota on Mood and Mental Health. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2018 Aug;17(4):28-32. PMID: 31043907; PMCID: PMC6469458.
Wang Y, Wang Z, Wang Y, et al.The gut-microglia connection: Implications for central nervous system diseases.Front Immunol. 2018;9:2325. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.02325
Martinez JE, Kahana DD, Ghuman S, et al.Unhealthy lifestyle and gut dysbiosis: A better understanding of the effects of poor diet and nicotine on the intestinal microbiome.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:667066. doi:10.3389/fendo.2021.667066
Zhang P.Influence of Foods and Nutrition on the Gut Microbiome and Implications for Intestinal Health. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Aug 24;23(17):9588. doi: 10.3390/ijms23179588
Jin Y, Wu S, Zeng Z, Fu Z.Effects of environmental pollutants on gut microbiota. Environmental Pollution. 2017;222:1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.045
Vich Vila A, Collij V, Sanna S, et al.Impact of commonly used drugs on the composition and metabolic function of the gut microbiota.Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):362. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-14177-z
Pan R, Wang L, Xu X, et al.Crosstalk between the Gut Microbiome and Colonic Motility in Chronic Constipation: Potential Mechanisms and Microbiota Modulation. Nutrients. 2022 Sep 8;14(18):3704. doi: 10.3390/nu14183704
DeGruttola AK, Low D, Mizoguchi A, et al.Current Understanding of Dysbiosis in Disease in Human and Animal Models. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2016 May;22(5):1137-50. doi: 10.1097/MIB.0000000000000750
PENN Medicine.Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) basics.
Dahal RH, Kim S, Kim YK, et al.Insight into gut dysbiosis of patients with inflammatory bowel disease and ischemic colitis. Front Microbiol. 2023;14:1174832. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1174832
Lau K, Srivatsav V, Rizwan A, et al.Bridging the Gap between Gut Microbial Dysbiosis and Cardiovascular Diseases. Nutrients. 2017 Aug 10;9(8):859. doi: 10.3390/nu9080859
Wang L, Alammar N, Singh R, et al.Gut Microbial Dysbiosis in the Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2020 Apr;120(4):565-586. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2019.05.015
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