Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhy It’s Not ContagiousWhy It HappensFamily RiskOrgan TransplantsPregnancyInfectionsStigma
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Why It’s Not Contagious
Why It Happens
Family Risk
Organ Transplants
Pregnancy
Infections
Stigma
Though cancer is not contagious, some infections that are contagious can increase a person’s risk of developing cancer. Cancer may run in families, but instead of being transmitted, this risk is related to genetics or common exposures that increase risk.
This article will cover why cancer isn’t contagious, and the stigma people with cancer face because of the misinformation.
FatCamera / Getty Images
Why Cancer Is Not Contagious
Cancer cells aren’t contagious in humans. That’s because they can’t live outside the body, and the immune system recognizes cancer cells entering the body.
What Does Cancer Spreading Mean?Cancer does not spread from person to person. “Cancer spreading” describes metastasis, when cancer moves from the primary location to a new location in the body. This can occur through the lymphatic system, the bloodstream, or growing into surrounding tissues.
What Does Cancer Spreading Mean?
Cancer does not spread from person to person. “Cancer spreading” describes metastasis, when cancer moves from the primary location to a new location in the body. This can occur through the lymphatic system, the bloodstream, or growing into surrounding tissues.
In an unethical experiment conducted in the 1950s and 1960s, a researcher and physician namedDr. Chester Southaminjected live cancer cells into people to see if he could “cause” cancer. The people did not know that they had been given cancer cells. With only one exception, the immune systems of the people in the experiment fought off the cancer cells before they got beyond the nodule stage.
Our immune cells see cancer cells from another person as they would see disease-causing viruses or bacteria. The fact that cancer isn’t contagious is better understood when looking at how cancer develops.
Why Cancer Happens
Cells normally grow and divide to keep the body’s organs working. When old ones die, new ones replace them.
With cancer, the body’s cells start to change, divide, and multiply out of control. This happens when there is damage, or a mutation, to theDNAin the cells. The cell makes copies of itself that are abnormal and starts to invade tissues in the body.
These cell mutations can happen because of lifestyle factors like UV sun exposure or smoking. Genetic mutations can also be inherited.
Cancer ClustersSometimes, cancer cases seem to “cluster” in an area, which can make it seem as though people are “catching” it from each other. The truth is that cancer clusters are more likely related to shared risk factors, such as something in the environment, that all the people diagnosed with cancer have in common.
Cancer Clusters
Sometimes, cancer cases seem to “cluster” in an area, which can make it seem as though people are “catching” it from each other. The truth is that cancer clusters are more likely related to shared risk factors, such as something in the environment, that all the people diagnosed with cancer have in common.
Cancer Risk in Families
Genetics plays a role in cancers that seem to “run in families.” Even when cancer is found in multiple members of a family, it does not mean that cancer is being passed from one person to another like a contagious illness. Instead, it may have to do with genes that are passed down in a family.
Many gene mutations associated with cancer (such as BRCA) occur intumor suppressor genes. These genes code for proteins that fix damaged DNA or get rid of it before it can turn into cancer cells.
Having a mutated gene does not cause cancer—rather, it gets in the way of the body’s ability to repair damaged cells. Even without a genetic predisposition, cancer may seem to cluster in families for other reasons like shared lifestyle habits (like smoking or diet) and exposure to environmental carcinogens, such as radon exposure in the home.
Cancers can also be related to exposure to the virus (like hepatitis B) that can be spread between family members.
Organ Transplants and Cancer Risk
If cancer cells from someone else’s body got into your body, your immune system should be able to destroy them. However, there have been cases of cancer being transmitted from one person to another through organ transplants. It’s thought thattransfusion-related cancermay occur in about 3 out of 5,000 transplant recipients.
With organ transplants, two factors contribute to the risk of cancer:
A 2022 study of patients in Finland found that solid organ transplant recipients had a higher risk for cancer than the general population, and were also more likely to die from cancer.
However, the study also noted that the type of transplant a patient had was often linked to their cancer risk. For example, the risk for lung cancer was higher in people who had lung transplants, and the risk for liver cancer was higher in people who had liver transplants. All organ transplant recipients in the study had a higher risk for kidney cancer, regardless of what organ transplant they had received.
Cancer and Blood TransfusionsThere is no evidence of cancer being transmitted through a blood transfusion. However, there are limitations on when people with cancer can donate blood.
Cancer and Blood Transfusions
There is no evidence of cancer being transmitted through a blood transfusion. However, there are limitations on when people with cancer can donate blood.
Cancer Transmission During Pregnancy
There are a few reported cases of cancer transmission during pregnancy. While rare, this transmission could happen in a few ways:
How Tonsil Cancer Symptoms Progress
Infections That Increase Cancer Risk
Some infections that can be passed from person to person are thought to lead to cancer. However, when this happens, it’s not cancer that’s contagious, but the infection that may or may not lead to cancer.
In 2018, it’s estimated that there were 2.2 million infection-attributable cancer cases diagnosed in the United States.
While infections that could be linked to cancer are common, it’s not common to get cancer from them. Most cancers have more than one cause. Other factors such as exposure to carcinogens, immunosuppression, genetics, and lifestyle can combine with an infection to lead to cancer.
Infections may lead to cancer in different ways. For example, some infections cause inflammation that leads to cancer because there is an increase in the division of cells that are involved in repair. Other infections can cause immunosuppression that may contribute to cancer, or cause DNA damage and mutations linked to cancer.
Viruses associated with cancerinclude:
Bacteria associated with cancer include:
Parasites associated with cancer include:
In addition to these specific organisms, microorganisms on or in our bodies could be associated with an increased or decreased risk of cancer. For example, the normal bacteria of the skin (microbiome) might be related to the development of skin cancer.Also, having a balance ofgood gut bacteria may lower your risk of lymphoma.
Stigma Due to Myth That Cancer is Contagious
Having cancer is a profoundly challenging and frightening experience and a person needs support from their loved ones.
If friends, family, coworkers, and even strangers mistakenly believe that they will get cancer just from being around someone with it, a person who is trying to cope with the diagnosis and get through treatment may have to face that difficult time alone.
Even if a person has cancer that may have been related to an infection that can be spread between people, it does not mean that they will give cancer—or even the infection—to another person.
If you are trying to manage a cancer diagnosis and your loved ones do not understand, talk to your provider. They might be able to help your loved ones understand why cancer happens and show them that it is not contagious and that they do not have to worry about getting cancer just from being around you and supporting you.
How to Lower Your Risk of Infection During Cancer Treatment
Summary
Cancer is not contagious. Cancer happens for more than one reason, like genes and environmental factors, that come together over a person’s lifetime. While certain infections can increase the chances of getting some kinds of cancer, it does not mean that cancer is contagious even if the infection is.
If you have a loved one with cancer, know that you cannot catch cancer just from being around them. You can feel safe supporting them as they navigate the diagnosis and treatment.
25 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Metzger MJ, Goff SP.A sixth modality of infectious disease: contagious cancer from devils to clams and beyond.PLoS Pathog. 2016;12(10):e1005904. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1005904National Cancer Institute.Metastatic cancer: When cancer spreads.National Cancer Institute.What Is Cancer?.American Cancer Society.Cancer clusters.Apostolou P, Fostira F.Hereditary breast cancer: the era of new susceptibility genes.Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:747318. doi:10.1155/2013/747318Berman H, Shimshak S, Reimer D, et al.Skin Cancer in solid organ transplant recipients: A review for the nondermatologist. 2022;97(12):2355-2368. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2022.07.004Friman TK, Salla Jäämaa‐Holmberg, Fredrik Åberg, et al.Cancer risk and mortality after solid organ transplantation: A population‐based 30‐year cohort study in Finland. 2022;150(11):1779-1791. doi:10.1002/ijc.33934NIH.Organ transplants and cancer risk.Hepner A, Negrini D, Hase EA, et al.Cancer During Pregnancy: The Oncologist Overview.World J Oncol. 2019;10(1):28-34. doi:10.14740/wjon1177Greaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evol Med Public Health. 2018;2018(1):106–115. doi:10.1093/emph/eoy011Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Can I breastfeed during cancer treatment?.National Cancer Institute.Infectious agents and cancer.Grivennikov SI, Greten FR, Karin M.Immunity, inflammation, and cancer.Cell. 2010;140(6):883–899. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.025Bansal A, Singh MP, Rai B.Human papillomavirus-associated cancers: A growing global problem.Int J Appl Basic Med Res. 2016;6(2):84–89. doi:10.4103/2229-516X.179027Bakkalci D, Jia Y, Winter JR, Lewis JE, Taylor GS, Stagg HR.Risk factors for Epstein Barr virus-associated cancers: a systematic review, critical appraisal, and mapping of the epidemiological evidence.J Glob Health. 2020;10(1):010405. doi:10.7189/jogh.10.010405Borges AH, Dubrow R, Silverberg MJ.Factors contributing to risk for cancer among HIV-infected individuals, and evidence that earlier combination antiretroviral therapy will alter this risk.Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2014;9(1):34–40. doi:10.1097/COH.0000000000000025Panfil AR, Martinez MP, Ratner L, Green PL.Human T-cell leukemia virus-associated malignancy.Curr Opin Virol. 2016;20:40–46. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2016.08.009DeCaprio JA.Merkel cell polyomavirus and Merkel cell carcinoma.Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2017;372(1732):20160276. doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0276Wroblewski LE, Peek RM Jr, Wilson KT.Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: factors that modulate disease risk.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(4):713–739. doi:10.1128/CMR.00011-10Prueksapanich P, Piyachaturawat P, Aumpansub P, Ridtitid W, Chaiteerakij R, Rerknimitr R.Liver fluke-associated biliary tract cancer.Gut Liver. 2018;12(3):236–245. doi:10.5009/gnl17102Zaghloul MS.Bladder cancer and schistosomiasis.Journal of the Egyptian National Cancer Institute. 2012;24(4):151-159. doi:10.1016/j.jnci.2012.08.002Woo YR, Cho SH, Lee JD, Kim HS.The human microbiota and skin cancer.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1813. Published 2022 Feb 5. doi:10.3390/ijms23031813Fessler J, Matson V, Gajewski TF.Exploring the emerging role of the microbiome in cancer immunotherapy.Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer. 2019;7(1). doi:10.1186/s40425-019-0574-4National Cancer Institute.Common cancer myths and misconceptions.Dana-Farber.Cancer mythbusters: Is cancer contagious?.Additional ReadingGreaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evolution, Medicine and Public Health.2018(1):106-115.Metzger M, Villalba A, Carballal M, et al.Widespread transmission of independent cancer lineages within multiple bivalve species.Nature.2016;534:705-709.Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo C, et al.Malignant transformation ofHymenolepis nanain a human host.The New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373:1845-1852.Mulford R.Experimentation on human beings.Stanford Law Review.1967;20(1):99-117.Ostrander E, Davis B, Ostrander C.Transmissible tumors: breaking the cancer paradigm.Trends in Genetics.2016;32(1):1-15.Zhang S, Yuan J, Li W, Qifa Y.Organ transplantation from donors (cadaveric or living) with a history of malignancy: review of the literature.Transplantation Reviews. 2014;28(4):169-175.
25 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Metzger MJ, Goff SP.A sixth modality of infectious disease: contagious cancer from devils to clams and beyond.PLoS Pathog. 2016;12(10):e1005904. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1005904National Cancer Institute.Metastatic cancer: When cancer spreads.National Cancer Institute.What Is Cancer?.American Cancer Society.Cancer clusters.Apostolou P, Fostira F.Hereditary breast cancer: the era of new susceptibility genes.Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:747318. doi:10.1155/2013/747318Berman H, Shimshak S, Reimer D, et al.Skin Cancer in solid organ transplant recipients: A review for the nondermatologist. 2022;97(12):2355-2368. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2022.07.004Friman TK, Salla Jäämaa‐Holmberg, Fredrik Åberg, et al.Cancer risk and mortality after solid organ transplantation: A population‐based 30‐year cohort study in Finland. 2022;150(11):1779-1791. doi:10.1002/ijc.33934NIH.Organ transplants and cancer risk.Hepner A, Negrini D, Hase EA, et al.Cancer During Pregnancy: The Oncologist Overview.World J Oncol. 2019;10(1):28-34. doi:10.14740/wjon1177Greaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evol Med Public Health. 2018;2018(1):106–115. doi:10.1093/emph/eoy011Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Can I breastfeed during cancer treatment?.National Cancer Institute.Infectious agents and cancer.Grivennikov SI, Greten FR, Karin M.Immunity, inflammation, and cancer.Cell. 2010;140(6):883–899. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.025Bansal A, Singh MP, Rai B.Human papillomavirus-associated cancers: A growing global problem.Int J Appl Basic Med Res. 2016;6(2):84–89. doi:10.4103/2229-516X.179027Bakkalci D, Jia Y, Winter JR, Lewis JE, Taylor GS, Stagg HR.Risk factors for Epstein Barr virus-associated cancers: a systematic review, critical appraisal, and mapping of the epidemiological evidence.J Glob Health. 2020;10(1):010405. doi:10.7189/jogh.10.010405Borges AH, Dubrow R, Silverberg MJ.Factors contributing to risk for cancer among HIV-infected individuals, and evidence that earlier combination antiretroviral therapy will alter this risk.Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2014;9(1):34–40. doi:10.1097/COH.0000000000000025Panfil AR, Martinez MP, Ratner L, Green PL.Human T-cell leukemia virus-associated malignancy.Curr Opin Virol. 2016;20:40–46. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2016.08.009DeCaprio JA.Merkel cell polyomavirus and Merkel cell carcinoma.Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2017;372(1732):20160276. doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0276Wroblewski LE, Peek RM Jr, Wilson KT.Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: factors that modulate disease risk.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(4):713–739. doi:10.1128/CMR.00011-10Prueksapanich P, Piyachaturawat P, Aumpansub P, Ridtitid W, Chaiteerakij R, Rerknimitr R.Liver fluke-associated biliary tract cancer.Gut Liver. 2018;12(3):236–245. doi:10.5009/gnl17102Zaghloul MS.Bladder cancer and schistosomiasis.Journal of the Egyptian National Cancer Institute. 2012;24(4):151-159. doi:10.1016/j.jnci.2012.08.002Woo YR, Cho SH, Lee JD, Kim HS.The human microbiota and skin cancer.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1813. Published 2022 Feb 5. doi:10.3390/ijms23031813Fessler J, Matson V, Gajewski TF.Exploring the emerging role of the microbiome in cancer immunotherapy.Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer. 2019;7(1). doi:10.1186/s40425-019-0574-4National Cancer Institute.Common cancer myths and misconceptions.Dana-Farber.Cancer mythbusters: Is cancer contagious?.Additional ReadingGreaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evolution, Medicine and Public Health.2018(1):106-115.Metzger M, Villalba A, Carballal M, et al.Widespread transmission of independent cancer lineages within multiple bivalve species.Nature.2016;534:705-709.Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo C, et al.Malignant transformation ofHymenolepis nanain a human host.The New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373:1845-1852.Mulford R.Experimentation on human beings.Stanford Law Review.1967;20(1):99-117.Ostrander E, Davis B, Ostrander C.Transmissible tumors: breaking the cancer paradigm.Trends in Genetics.2016;32(1):1-15.Zhang S, Yuan J, Li W, Qifa Y.Organ transplantation from donors (cadaveric or living) with a history of malignancy: review of the literature.Transplantation Reviews. 2014;28(4):169-175.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Metzger MJ, Goff SP.A sixth modality of infectious disease: contagious cancer from devils to clams and beyond.PLoS Pathog. 2016;12(10):e1005904. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1005904National Cancer Institute.Metastatic cancer: When cancer spreads.National Cancer Institute.What Is Cancer?.American Cancer Society.Cancer clusters.Apostolou P, Fostira F.Hereditary breast cancer: the era of new susceptibility genes.Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:747318. doi:10.1155/2013/747318Berman H, Shimshak S, Reimer D, et al.Skin Cancer in solid organ transplant recipients: A review for the nondermatologist. 2022;97(12):2355-2368. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2022.07.004Friman TK, Salla Jäämaa‐Holmberg, Fredrik Åberg, et al.Cancer risk and mortality after solid organ transplantation: A population‐based 30‐year cohort study in Finland. 2022;150(11):1779-1791. doi:10.1002/ijc.33934NIH.Organ transplants and cancer risk.Hepner A, Negrini D, Hase EA, et al.Cancer During Pregnancy: The Oncologist Overview.World J Oncol. 2019;10(1):28-34. doi:10.14740/wjon1177Greaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evol Med Public Health. 2018;2018(1):106–115. doi:10.1093/emph/eoy011Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Can I breastfeed during cancer treatment?.National Cancer Institute.Infectious agents and cancer.Grivennikov SI, Greten FR, Karin M.Immunity, inflammation, and cancer.Cell. 2010;140(6):883–899. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.025Bansal A, Singh MP, Rai B.Human papillomavirus-associated cancers: A growing global problem.Int J Appl Basic Med Res. 2016;6(2):84–89. doi:10.4103/2229-516X.179027Bakkalci D, Jia Y, Winter JR, Lewis JE, Taylor GS, Stagg HR.Risk factors for Epstein Barr virus-associated cancers: a systematic review, critical appraisal, and mapping of the epidemiological evidence.J Glob Health. 2020;10(1):010405. doi:10.7189/jogh.10.010405Borges AH, Dubrow R, Silverberg MJ.Factors contributing to risk for cancer among HIV-infected individuals, and evidence that earlier combination antiretroviral therapy will alter this risk.Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2014;9(1):34–40. doi:10.1097/COH.0000000000000025Panfil AR, Martinez MP, Ratner L, Green PL.Human T-cell leukemia virus-associated malignancy.Curr Opin Virol. 2016;20:40–46. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2016.08.009DeCaprio JA.Merkel cell polyomavirus and Merkel cell carcinoma.Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2017;372(1732):20160276. doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0276Wroblewski LE, Peek RM Jr, Wilson KT.Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: factors that modulate disease risk.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(4):713–739. doi:10.1128/CMR.00011-10Prueksapanich P, Piyachaturawat P, Aumpansub P, Ridtitid W, Chaiteerakij R, Rerknimitr R.Liver fluke-associated biliary tract cancer.Gut Liver. 2018;12(3):236–245. doi:10.5009/gnl17102Zaghloul MS.Bladder cancer and schistosomiasis.Journal of the Egyptian National Cancer Institute. 2012;24(4):151-159. doi:10.1016/j.jnci.2012.08.002Woo YR, Cho SH, Lee JD, Kim HS.The human microbiota and skin cancer.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1813. Published 2022 Feb 5. doi:10.3390/ijms23031813Fessler J, Matson V, Gajewski TF.Exploring the emerging role of the microbiome in cancer immunotherapy.Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer. 2019;7(1). doi:10.1186/s40425-019-0574-4National Cancer Institute.Common cancer myths and misconceptions.Dana-Farber.Cancer mythbusters: Is cancer contagious?.
Metzger MJ, Goff SP.A sixth modality of infectious disease: contagious cancer from devils to clams and beyond.PLoS Pathog. 2016;12(10):e1005904. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1005904
National Cancer Institute.Metastatic cancer: When cancer spreads.
National Cancer Institute.What Is Cancer?.
American Cancer Society.Cancer clusters.
Apostolou P, Fostira F.Hereditary breast cancer: the era of new susceptibility genes.Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:747318. doi:10.1155/2013/747318
Berman H, Shimshak S, Reimer D, et al.Skin Cancer in solid organ transplant recipients: A review for the nondermatologist. 2022;97(12):2355-2368. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2022.07.004
Friman TK, Salla Jäämaa‐Holmberg, Fredrik Åberg, et al.Cancer risk and mortality after solid organ transplantation: A population‐based 30‐year cohort study in Finland. 2022;150(11):1779-1791. doi:10.1002/ijc.33934
NIH.Organ transplants and cancer risk.
Hepner A, Negrini D, Hase EA, et al.Cancer During Pregnancy: The Oncologist Overview.World J Oncol. 2019;10(1):28-34. doi:10.14740/wjon1177
Greaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evol Med Public Health. 2018;2018(1):106–115. doi:10.1093/emph/eoy011
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Can I breastfeed during cancer treatment?.
National Cancer Institute.Infectious agents and cancer.
Grivennikov SI, Greten FR, Karin M.Immunity, inflammation, and cancer.Cell. 2010;140(6):883–899. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.025
Bansal A, Singh MP, Rai B.Human papillomavirus-associated cancers: A growing global problem.Int J Appl Basic Med Res. 2016;6(2):84–89. doi:10.4103/2229-516X.179027
Bakkalci D, Jia Y, Winter JR, Lewis JE, Taylor GS, Stagg HR.Risk factors for Epstein Barr virus-associated cancers: a systematic review, critical appraisal, and mapping of the epidemiological evidence.J Glob Health. 2020;10(1):010405. doi:10.7189/jogh.10.010405
Borges AH, Dubrow R, Silverberg MJ.Factors contributing to risk for cancer among HIV-infected individuals, and evidence that earlier combination antiretroviral therapy will alter this risk.Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2014;9(1):34–40. doi:10.1097/COH.0000000000000025
Panfil AR, Martinez MP, Ratner L, Green PL.Human T-cell leukemia virus-associated malignancy.Curr Opin Virol. 2016;20:40–46. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2016.08.009
DeCaprio JA.Merkel cell polyomavirus and Merkel cell carcinoma.Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2017;372(1732):20160276. doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0276
Wroblewski LE, Peek RM Jr, Wilson KT.Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: factors that modulate disease risk.Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(4):713–739. doi:10.1128/CMR.00011-10
Prueksapanich P, Piyachaturawat P, Aumpansub P, Ridtitid W, Chaiteerakij R, Rerknimitr R.Liver fluke-associated biliary tract cancer.Gut Liver. 2018;12(3):236–245. doi:10.5009/gnl17102
Zaghloul MS.Bladder cancer and schistosomiasis.Journal of the Egyptian National Cancer Institute. 2012;24(4):151-159. doi:10.1016/j.jnci.2012.08.002
Woo YR, Cho SH, Lee JD, Kim HS.The human microbiota and skin cancer.Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1813. Published 2022 Feb 5. doi:10.3390/ijms23031813
Fessler J, Matson V, Gajewski TF.Exploring the emerging role of the microbiome in cancer immunotherapy.Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer. 2019;7(1). doi:10.1186/s40425-019-0574-4
National Cancer Institute.Common cancer myths and misconceptions.
Dana-Farber.Cancer mythbusters: Is cancer contagious?.
Greaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evolution, Medicine and Public Health.2018(1):106-115.Metzger M, Villalba A, Carballal M, et al.Widespread transmission of independent cancer lineages within multiple bivalve species.Nature.2016;534:705-709.Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo C, et al.Malignant transformation ofHymenolepis nanain a human host.The New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373:1845-1852.Mulford R.Experimentation on human beings.Stanford Law Review.1967;20(1):99-117.Ostrander E, Davis B, Ostrander C.Transmissible tumors: breaking the cancer paradigm.Trends in Genetics.2016;32(1):1-15.Zhang S, Yuan J, Li W, Qifa Y.Organ transplantation from donors (cadaveric or living) with a history of malignancy: review of the literature.Transplantation Reviews. 2014;28(4):169-175.
Greaves M, Hughes W.Cancer cell transmission via the placenta.Evolution, Medicine and Public Health.2018(1):106-115.
Metzger M, Villalba A, Carballal M, et al.Widespread transmission of independent cancer lineages within multiple bivalve species.Nature.2016;534:705-709.
Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo C, et al.Malignant transformation ofHymenolepis nanain a human host.The New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373:1845-1852.
Mulford R.Experimentation on human beings.Stanford Law Review.1967;20(1):99-117.
Ostrander E, Davis B, Ostrander C.Transmissible tumors: breaking the cancer paradigm.Trends in Genetics.2016;32(1):1-15.
Zhang S, Yuan J, Li W, Qifa Y.Organ transplantation from donors (cadaveric or living) with a history of malignancy: review of the literature.Transplantation Reviews. 2014;28(4):169-175.
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