Kidney Pain

Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsSymptomsCausesTreatmentDiagnosisWhen to See a ProviderFrequently Asked Questions

Table of ContentsView All

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Table of Contents

Symptoms

Causes

Treatment

Diagnosis

When to See a Provider

Frequently Asked Questions

There are many reasons why you may experience kidney pain, some of which are more serious than others. The pain may be the sign of an infection, injury, or another health concern, like akidney stone.

This article describes the signs and symptoms of kidney pain and what the pain may suggest about the underlying cause. It also looks at how kidney pain is diagnosed and treated, and when it is time to seek medical treatment.

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Symptoms of Kidney Pain

Thekidneysare two bean-shaped organs about the size of a clenched fist that are part of theurinary tract. The urinary tract is responsible for making urine (pee) and removing it from the body.

Kidney pain, also known asrenal pain, can be felt where the kidneys are located: in the middle of the back, on either side of the spine, and just under the ribcage. Sometimes, the pain will be situated on the side of the body between the upper abdomen and back, where it is referred to as flank pain.

The kidney pain may be unilateral (on one side of the body) or bilateral (on both sides). It can also beacute(rapidly developing and typically intense) orchronic(gradually developing and persistent).

Because the pain is often dull, it can be difficult to tell if it is arising from the kidneys or from surrounding muscles, bones, or organs. It is not uncommon for people to mistake kidney pain for back pain, although there are several key ways to tell them apart.

Kidney PainThe pain is felt higher in the back and deep in the body.The pain tends to be dull (although some conditions can cause sharp, stabbing pain).The pain can be felt on one side or both sides of the back.The pain generally will not go away if you shift your body or rest.Back PainThe pain typically is felt in the lower back.The pain tends to be sharper and can cause shooting pains down one leg.The pain usually will get worse with activity, such as when bending over or lifting heavy objects.The pain can improve when you shift your body or rest.

Kidney PainThe pain is felt higher in the back and deep in the body.The pain tends to be dull (although some conditions can cause sharp, stabbing pain).The pain can be felt on one side or both sides of the back.The pain generally will not go away if you shift your body or rest.

The pain is felt higher in the back and deep in the body.

The pain tends to be dull (although some conditions can cause sharp, stabbing pain).

The pain can be felt on one side or both sides of the back.

The pain generally will not go away if you shift your body or rest.

Back PainThe pain typically is felt in the lower back.The pain tends to be sharper and can cause shooting pains down one leg.The pain usually will get worse with activity, such as when bending over or lifting heavy objects.The pain can improve when you shift your body or rest.

The pain typically is felt in the lower back.

The pain tends to be sharper and can cause shooting pains down one leg.

The pain usually will get worse with activity, such as when bending over or lifting heavy objects.

The pain can improve when you shift your body or rest.

Causes and Symptoms of Back Pain

Common Causes of Kidney Pain

There are many different causes of kidney pain, some of which are acute and others that are chronic. In some cases, the symptoms can hint at the underlying cause.

Kidney Stones

Kidney stones, also known asrenal calculi, are among the most common causes of kidney pain. Kidney stones can form when there is an excessive concentration of specific substances in the urine.

Kidney pain arises as the stone moves downward through the kidney, ureter,bladder, and ultimately through theurethra(the tube through which urine exits the body),

Unlike most causes of kidney pain, thepain from kidney stonescan improve as you switch positions or lie down to rest.

The 4 Stages of Passing a Kidney Stone

Urinary Tract Infections

While most UTIs affect the bladder and urethra, the infection can sometimes travel upstream and affect the kidneys as well. This type of infection is known aspyelonephritis.

Pyelonephritis can cause pain in the back, flank, or groin areas. There will often be fever and chills as well as frequent urination, burning with urination, blood in the urine, and smelly or cloudy urine. Nausea and vomiting are also common.

Causes and Risk Factors of UTIs

Dehydration

Severe cases can causetachycardia(rapid heartbeats),tachypnea(rapid breathing), and confusion.

Dehydration can cause a buildup of wastes in the body and clog the kidneys with muscle proteins known asmyoglobin. Dehydration can also contribute to the development of kidney stones and UTIs, both of which can cause kidney damage if not treated appropriately.

How to Recognize and Prevent Dehydration

Kidney Trauma

Sometimes the kidneys can be physically injured, such as during contact sports, a severe fall or blow, or an automobile accident. The injury, referred to as arenal contusion, can cause a dull, aching pain or sharp, stabbing pains depending on the severity of the injury.

The pain may not be immediately apparent but will often progress over the course of hours or days. In addition to pain, there may be localized bruising, tenderness to the touch, nausea or vomiting, and blood in the urine.

Kidney trauma should not be confused withacute kidney injury (AKI), a typically reversible form of kidney failure that causes the kidneys to temporarily “shut down.”

What Is Acute Kidney Injury?

Polycystic Kidney Disease

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD)is a genetic disorder that causes fluid-filled cysts to form inside the kidneys. Over time, the accumulation of cysts can cause the kidneys to enlarge, triggering chronic back, side, or flank pain. Both kidneys will be affected.

Because the kidneys are involved in the regulation of blood pressure, people with PKD often havehypertension(high blood pressure). Other possible symptoms include headaches, blood in the urine, a feeling of abdominal fullness, and increased abdominal size.

People with PKD are at an increased risk of kidney stones and kidney failure.

Does Kidney Failure Cause Pain?Kidney pain is also not a typical sign of kidney failure. With kidney failure, you are more likely to feel pain in the joints and muscles than in the kidneys due to the accumulation of toxins and depletion of electrolytes in your blood.

Does Kidney Failure Cause Pain?

Kidney pain is also not a typical sign of kidney failure. With kidney failure, you are more likely to feel pain in the joints and muscles than in the kidneys due to the accumulation of toxins and depletion of electrolytes in your blood.

Kidney Cancer

A less common cause of kidney pain—but one that is especially important to be aware of—is kidney cancer. The most common form, calledrenal cell carcinoma, accounts for nine out of every 10 cases.

Kidney cancer is often asymptomatic (without symptoms) during the early stages and will often only cause symptoms when the disease is advancing.

When symptoms do develop, they often include pain in the side or flank area as well as chronic fatigue, blood in the urine, unintended weight loss, and a physical mass in the flank area.

Kidney cancer is the fifth most common cancer and the eighth most common cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States.In 2022, there were an estimated 79,000 new cases of kidney cancer in the United States and around 13,920 deaths.

Symptoms of Kidney Cancer

Medications

There are many medications that arenephrotoxic, meaning toxic to the kidneys. Most do not cause harm when used as directed for a limited time. However, if you have underlyingchronic kidney disease (CKD)or take the drugs excessively, they can injure the kidneys and cause pain.

The pain will typically be dull and felt in both kidneys. In addition to pain, there may be reduced urination, fatigue, itching, nausea, vomiting, a loss of appetite, and confusion. If the medications are not stopped, permanent kidney damage can occur.

Among the drugs that may be harmful to the kidneys are:

How to Treat Kidney Pain

If you have been diagnosed with a kidney stone, the treatment plan will be largely based on the size of the stone itself and includes:

UTIs arecommonly treatedwith oralantibiotics. Uncomplicated pyelonephritis responds especially well to fluoroquinolone antibiotics but can also be treated with extended-releasepenicillins,cephalosporins, and Bactrim (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole).

The kidney pain may be eased with Tylenol (acetaminophen), gentleheat application, or taking a warm bath withEpsom salts. Ensuring ample hydration is also important.

When to Go to the Hospital for a Kidney Infection

Rehydration is the primary treatment for dehydration. This may involve oral solutions like Pedialyte for mild to moderate dehydration, while severe cases may requireintravenous rehydration(in which fluids are delivered through a vein in your arm).

Drinking plenty of water can dilute the concentration of urine, which, in turn, helps relieve kidney pain. Whileelectrolyte-rich sports drinkscan be useful for milder cases of dehydration, they often contain excessive amounts of sugar that can irritate the kidneys. Rehydration with water remains the best option.

The treatment of a renal contusion is based on the severity of the injury. Milder cases often only require bed rest and supportive care with OTC painkillers, gentle heat application, and ample fluids.

Because NSAIDs promote bleeding, mild to moderate pain is often managed with non-NSAID painkillers like Tylenol. For severe pain, NSAIDs may be used with caution, either alone or with anopioid (narcotic) painkiller.

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is typically treated with a combination of self-care, OTC or prescription drugs, and specialist treatments like cyst aspiration (in which large cysts are drained in a minimally invasive surgical procedure).

Drinking more water also prevents the cysts from enlarging. Pain management is central to the treatment of PKD. This may involve OTC painkillers like Tylenol or Advil or stronger prescription drugs likeTylenol #3 (acetaminophen and codeine)or Ultram (tramadol).

JynarqueIn 2018, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvedJynarque (tolvaptan), an oral medication that can slow cyst formation in people with PKD. Studies have shown that Jynarque can also reduce kidney pain in people with rapidly progressing PKD.

Jynarque

In 2018, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvedJynarque (tolvaptan), an oral medication that can slow cyst formation in people with PKD. Studies have shown that Jynarque can also reduce kidney pain in people with rapidly progressing PKD.

How Polycystic Kidney Disease Is Treated

Renal cell carcinoma can be treated with surgery. This can reduce kidney pain even if the cancer has spread to other organs.People who cannot withstand surgery may be treated with cryosurgery (in which the tumor is destroyed with freezing) orradiofrequency ablation(in which the tumor is destroyed with electricity).

Whilechemotherapyandradiation therapymay be involved in the treatment plan, targeted drugs like Sutent (sunitinib) and Nexavar (sorafenib)andimmunotherapy drugslike Keytruda (pembrolizumab) and Opdivo (nivolumab) have taken a more central role in the treatment of renal cell carcinoma.

Depending on the stage of cancer, the pain may be managed with opioid drugs likefentanyl, alfentanil, or sufentanil. Severe cases may benefit from morphine.

Are There Tests to Diagnose the Cause of Kidney Pain?

If you experience kidney pain, your healthcare provider typically will order lab tests to check for abnormalities in your blood or urine. Imaging tests will also be used to visualize the kidneys indirectly.

Lab Tests

One of the first tests your healthcare provider will order for kidney pain is aurinalysis. The test evaluates the composition of your urine to identify signs of kidney problems, includingexcessive proteinsorred blood cells. Microscopy may also be performed on the urine sample. Aurine culturecan also be performed to check for bacterial or fungal infections.

Blood tests will also be ordered to evaluate your kidney function and check for signs of infection or inflammation. These typically include:

Imaging Tests

There are several imaging tests that help pinpoint the cause of kidney pain whether it be due to an infection, trauma, or disease. These include:

Specialist Procedures

There are times when more invasive procedures are needed to either diagnose the cause of kidney pain or confirm the diagnosis. These include:

When to See a Healthcare Provider

You should see a healthcare provider if your kidney pain is persistent or worsening. Even if the pain is dull, there is no such thing as “normal” kidney pain. It is in your best interest to have it looked at.

When to Call 911Seek emergency care if you develop sudden, severe kidney pain with or without blood in the urine. You should do the same if you have kidney pain and are suddenly unable to urinate. This may be a sign of aurinary tract obstruction, which can turn deadly if not treated immediately.

When to Call 911

Seek emergency care if you develop sudden, severe kidney pain with or without blood in the urine. You should do the same if you have kidney pain and are suddenly unable to urinate. This may be a sign of aurinary tract obstruction, which can turn deadly if not treated immediately.

When Should You See a Kidney Specialist?

Summary

Common causes of kidney pain include kidney stones, kidney infection, dehydration, kidney trauma, polycystic kidney disease, and kidney cancer. The pain will often resolve when the underlying condition is treated. Over-the-counter or prescription painkillers, heat therapy, and ample hydration can help ease the discomfort and pain.

One of the reasons why people mistake kidney pain for back pain is that they don’t actually know where their kidneys are. The kidneys are located higher up than many people imagine, housed on the lower portion of the rib cage and not in the middle of the back where “kidney punches” are thrown in movies and on television.

Frequently Asked QuestionsKidney stones are the most common cause of kidney pain. Symptoms include a sharp, stabbing pain in the back or side that often starts suddenly and comes in waves. The pain will often move to the lower abdomen or groin as the body tries to rid itself of the hardened mineral deposit.Kidney stones will often cause pain right before bedtime or just as you awaken because these are the times when you are less likely to urinate. During these times, the ureters that connect the kidneys to the bladder will constrict (narrow) to prevent urination. This, in turn, can intensify pain if you have kidney stones.The symptoms of a kidney infection can overlap with a bladder infection but tend to be more severe. This is because the infection will have traveled upstream from the urethra and bladder to the ureters and kidneys. Symptoms include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and pain on either one or both sides of the back.Learn MoreHow Kidney Infections Are Treated

Kidney stones are the most common cause of kidney pain. Symptoms include a sharp, stabbing pain in the back or side that often starts suddenly and comes in waves. The pain will often move to the lower abdomen or groin as the body tries to rid itself of the hardened mineral deposit.

Kidney stones will often cause pain right before bedtime or just as you awaken because these are the times when you are less likely to urinate. During these times, the ureters that connect the kidneys to the bladder will constrict (narrow) to prevent urination. This, in turn, can intensify pain if you have kidney stones.

The symptoms of a kidney infection can overlap with a bladder infection but tend to be more severe. This is because the infection will have traveled upstream from the urethra and bladder to the ureters and kidneys. Symptoms include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and pain on either one or both sides of the back.Learn MoreHow Kidney Infections Are Treated

The symptoms of a kidney infection can overlap with a bladder infection but tend to be more severe. This is because the infection will have traveled upstream from the urethra and bladder to the ureters and kidneys. Symptoms include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and pain on either one or both sides of the back.

Learn MoreHow Kidney Infections Are Treated

27 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.American Kidney Fund.Kidney pain: causes, symptoms, and treatments.Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: an approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167–70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Urinary tract infection.Herness J, Buttolph A, Hammer NC.Acute pyelonephritis in adults: rapid evidence review.Am Fam Physician.2020;102(3):173-80.Strachan SR, Morris LF.Management of severe dehydration.J Intensive Care Soc. 2017;18(3):251-5. doi:10.1177/1751143717693859Erlich T, Kitrey ND.Renal trauma: the current best practice.Ther Adv Urol. 2018;10(10):295–303, doi:10.1177/1756287218785828MedlinePlus.Polycystic kidney disease.National Kidney Foundation.Polycystic kidney disease.Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: An approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167-70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327National Cancer Institute.Renal cell cancer treatment (PDQ)—health professional version.National Cancer Institute.Common cancer types.American Cancer Society.Key statistics about kidney cancer.Awdishu L, Mehta RL.The 6R’s of drug induced nephrotoxicity.BMC Nephrol. 2017;18(1):124. doi:10.1186/s12882-017-0536-3National Kidney Foundation.Which drugs are harmful to your kidneys?Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL, et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-1169. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091Plate A, Kronenberg A, Risch M.Treatment of urinary tract infections in Swiss primary care: quality and determinants of antibiotic prescribing.BMC Fam Pract. 2020;21(1):125. doi:10.1186/s12875-020-01201-1Rowlands D, Kopetschny B, Badenhorst C.The hydrating effects of hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic sports drinks and waters on central hydration during continuous exercise: a systematic meta-analysis and perspective.Sports Medicine. 2022;52(2):349-75. doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01558-yAmerican College of Surgeons.ACS trauma quality programs best practice guidelines for acute pain management in trauma patients.Bergmann C, Guay-Woodford LM, Harris PC, et al.Polycystic kidney disease.Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2018;4(1):50. doi:10.1038/s41572-018-0047-yOtsuka Pharmaceutical Co.Jynarque (tolvaptan) tablets for oral use.American Cancer Society.Surgery for kidney cancer.American Cancer Society.Targeted drug therapy for kidney cancer.American Cancer Society.Immunotherapy for kidney cancer.Sande TA, Laird BJA, Fallon MT.The use of opioids in cancer patients with renal impairment-a systematic review.Support Care Cancer. 2017;25(2):661-675. doi:10.1007/s00520-016-3447-0Doty E, DiGiacomo S, Gunn B, Westafer L, Schoenfeld E.What are the clinical effects of the different emergency department imaging options for suspected renal colic? A scoping review.J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open.2021;2(3):e12446. doi:10.1002/emp2.12446Flores-Mireles AL, Walker JN, Caparon M, Hultgren SJ.Urinary tract infections: epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options.Nat Rev Microbiol.2015;13(5):269–284. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3432

27 Sources

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.American Kidney Fund.Kidney pain: causes, symptoms, and treatments.Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: an approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167–70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Urinary tract infection.Herness J, Buttolph A, Hammer NC.Acute pyelonephritis in adults: rapid evidence review.Am Fam Physician.2020;102(3):173-80.Strachan SR, Morris LF.Management of severe dehydration.J Intensive Care Soc. 2017;18(3):251-5. doi:10.1177/1751143717693859Erlich T, Kitrey ND.Renal trauma: the current best practice.Ther Adv Urol. 2018;10(10):295–303, doi:10.1177/1756287218785828MedlinePlus.Polycystic kidney disease.National Kidney Foundation.Polycystic kidney disease.Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: An approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167-70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327National Cancer Institute.Renal cell cancer treatment (PDQ)—health professional version.National Cancer Institute.Common cancer types.American Cancer Society.Key statistics about kidney cancer.Awdishu L, Mehta RL.The 6R’s of drug induced nephrotoxicity.BMC Nephrol. 2017;18(1):124. doi:10.1186/s12882-017-0536-3National Kidney Foundation.Which drugs are harmful to your kidneys?Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL, et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-1169. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091Plate A, Kronenberg A, Risch M.Treatment of urinary tract infections in Swiss primary care: quality and determinants of antibiotic prescribing.BMC Fam Pract. 2020;21(1):125. doi:10.1186/s12875-020-01201-1Rowlands D, Kopetschny B, Badenhorst C.The hydrating effects of hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic sports drinks and waters on central hydration during continuous exercise: a systematic meta-analysis and perspective.Sports Medicine. 2022;52(2):349-75. doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01558-yAmerican College of Surgeons.ACS trauma quality programs best practice guidelines for acute pain management in trauma patients.Bergmann C, Guay-Woodford LM, Harris PC, et al.Polycystic kidney disease.Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2018;4(1):50. doi:10.1038/s41572-018-0047-yOtsuka Pharmaceutical Co.Jynarque (tolvaptan) tablets for oral use.American Cancer Society.Surgery for kidney cancer.American Cancer Society.Targeted drug therapy for kidney cancer.American Cancer Society.Immunotherapy for kidney cancer.Sande TA, Laird BJA, Fallon MT.The use of opioids in cancer patients with renal impairment-a systematic review.Support Care Cancer. 2017;25(2):661-675. doi:10.1007/s00520-016-3447-0Doty E, DiGiacomo S, Gunn B, Westafer L, Schoenfeld E.What are the clinical effects of the different emergency department imaging options for suspected renal colic? A scoping review.J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open.2021;2(3):e12446. doi:10.1002/emp2.12446Flores-Mireles AL, Walker JN, Caparon M, Hultgren SJ.Urinary tract infections: epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options.Nat Rev Microbiol.2015;13(5):269–284. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3432

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

American Kidney Fund.Kidney pain: causes, symptoms, and treatments.Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: an approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167–70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Urinary tract infection.Herness J, Buttolph A, Hammer NC.Acute pyelonephritis in adults: rapid evidence review.Am Fam Physician.2020;102(3):173-80.Strachan SR, Morris LF.Management of severe dehydration.J Intensive Care Soc. 2017;18(3):251-5. doi:10.1177/1751143717693859Erlich T, Kitrey ND.Renal trauma: the current best practice.Ther Adv Urol. 2018;10(10):295–303, doi:10.1177/1756287218785828MedlinePlus.Polycystic kidney disease.National Kidney Foundation.Polycystic kidney disease.Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: An approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167-70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327National Cancer Institute.Renal cell cancer treatment (PDQ)—health professional version.National Cancer Institute.Common cancer types.American Cancer Society.Key statistics about kidney cancer.Awdishu L, Mehta RL.The 6R’s of drug induced nephrotoxicity.BMC Nephrol. 2017;18(1):124. doi:10.1186/s12882-017-0536-3National Kidney Foundation.Which drugs are harmful to your kidneys?Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL, et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-1169. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091Plate A, Kronenberg A, Risch M.Treatment of urinary tract infections in Swiss primary care: quality and determinants of antibiotic prescribing.BMC Fam Pract. 2020;21(1):125. doi:10.1186/s12875-020-01201-1Rowlands D, Kopetschny B, Badenhorst C.The hydrating effects of hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic sports drinks and waters on central hydration during continuous exercise: a systematic meta-analysis and perspective.Sports Medicine. 2022;52(2):349-75. doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01558-yAmerican College of Surgeons.ACS trauma quality programs best practice guidelines for acute pain management in trauma patients.Bergmann C, Guay-Woodford LM, Harris PC, et al.Polycystic kidney disease.Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2018;4(1):50. doi:10.1038/s41572-018-0047-yOtsuka Pharmaceutical Co.Jynarque (tolvaptan) tablets for oral use.American Cancer Society.Surgery for kidney cancer.American Cancer Society.Targeted drug therapy for kidney cancer.American Cancer Society.Immunotherapy for kidney cancer.Sande TA, Laird BJA, Fallon MT.The use of opioids in cancer patients with renal impairment-a systematic review.Support Care Cancer. 2017;25(2):661-675. doi:10.1007/s00520-016-3447-0Doty E, DiGiacomo S, Gunn B, Westafer L, Schoenfeld E.What are the clinical effects of the different emergency department imaging options for suspected renal colic? A scoping review.J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open.2021;2(3):e12446. doi:10.1002/emp2.12446Flores-Mireles AL, Walker JN, Caparon M, Hultgren SJ.Urinary tract infections: epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options.Nat Rev Microbiol.2015;13(5):269–284. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3432

American Kidney Fund.Kidney pain: causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: an approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167–70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327

Alelign T, Petros B.Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts.Adv Urol.2018;2018:3068365. doi:10.1155/2018/3068365

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Urinary tract infection.

Herness J, Buttolph A, Hammer NC.Acute pyelonephritis in adults: rapid evidence review.Am Fam Physician.2020;102(3):173-80.

Strachan SR, Morris LF.Management of severe dehydration.J Intensive Care Soc. 2017;18(3):251-5. doi:10.1177/1751143717693859

Erlich T, Kitrey ND.Renal trauma: the current best practice.Ther Adv Urol. 2018;10(10):295–303, doi:10.1177/1756287218785828

MedlinePlus.Polycystic kidney disease.

National Kidney Foundation.Polycystic kidney disease.

Dewar MJ, Chin JL.Chronic renal pain: An approach to investigation and management.Can Urol Assoc J.2018;12(6 Suppl 3):S167-70. doi:10.5489/cuaj.5327

National Cancer Institute.Renal cell cancer treatment (PDQ)—health professional version.

National Cancer Institute.Common cancer types.

American Cancer Society.Key statistics about kidney cancer.

Awdishu L, Mehta RL.The 6R’s of drug induced nephrotoxicity.BMC Nephrol. 2017;18(1):124. doi:10.1186/s12882-017-0536-3

National Kidney Foundation.Which drugs are harmful to your kidneys?

Assimos D, Krambeck A, Miller NL, et al.Surgical management of stones: American Urological Association/Endourological Society guideline, part II.J Urol.2016;196(4):1161-1169. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2016.05.091

Plate A, Kronenberg A, Risch M.Treatment of urinary tract infections in Swiss primary care: quality and determinants of antibiotic prescribing.BMC Fam Pract. 2020;21(1):125. doi:10.1186/s12875-020-01201-1

Rowlands D, Kopetschny B, Badenhorst C.The hydrating effects of hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic sports drinks and waters on central hydration during continuous exercise: a systematic meta-analysis and perspective.Sports Medicine. 2022;52(2):349-75. doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01558-y

American College of Surgeons.ACS trauma quality programs best practice guidelines for acute pain management in trauma patients.

Bergmann C, Guay-Woodford LM, Harris PC, et al.Polycystic kidney disease.Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2018;4(1):50. doi:10.1038/s41572-018-0047-y

Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co.Jynarque (tolvaptan) tablets for oral use.

American Cancer Society.Surgery for kidney cancer.

American Cancer Society.Targeted drug therapy for kidney cancer.

American Cancer Society.Immunotherapy for kidney cancer.

Sande TA, Laird BJA, Fallon MT.The use of opioids in cancer patients with renal impairment-a systematic review.Support Care Cancer. 2017;25(2):661-675. doi:10.1007/s00520-016-3447-0

Doty E, DiGiacomo S, Gunn B, Westafer L, Schoenfeld E.What are the clinical effects of the different emergency department imaging options for suspected renal colic? A scoping review.J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open.2021;2(3):e12446. doi:10.1002/emp2.12446

Flores-Mireles AL, Walker JN, Caparon M, Hultgren SJ.Urinary tract infections: epidemiology, mechanisms of infection and treatment options.Nat Rev Microbiol.2015;13(5):269–284. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3432

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