Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsSymptomsCausesDiagnosisTreatmentCoping
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Symptoms
Causes
Diagnosis
Treatment
Coping
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The main symptom of dyspnea is labored breathing. The degree of shortness of breath can vary, with some people experiencing it with physical activity and others experiencing itchronically.
Some people describe the shortness of breath they experience with lung cancer as “not being able to catch their breath,” “being unable to get enough air,” and “feeling like they’re being smothered or suffocated.”
While dyspnea is a largely subjective finding, it is an important symptom that manyoncologistsandpulmonologistsrefer to as the “sixth vital sign.”
Other symptoms can co-occur with dyspnea and help describe the severity of the symptom. These include:
Signs and Symptoms of Lung Cancer
Since some of the causes associated with lung cancer are treatable, it is important to tell your oncologist about any shortness of breath you experience—even if it is relatively minor.
All possible causes should be explored during the diagnosis. If not, you may be given drugs that relieve the symptom but mask the true underlying cause. In some cases, shortness of breath may be an early sign of a serious condition.
Tumor Progression
One of the more common reasons for increased shortness of breath is growth of the tumor inside the lung.This is because airflow can be obstructed when a tumor grows in or near one of the large airways.
The displacement of functional tissue with malignant tissue will almost invariably reduce lung function—often minimally with early-stage cancer but more significantly as the disease progresses.
Reduced Lung Volume
Surgery for lung cancer, such as alobectomy,pneumonectomy, orwedge resection, results in reduced lung volume and increased difficulty with breathing, especially during activity.
Scarring after surgery and prolonged radiation therapy can also reduce functional lung volume and lead to chronic shortness of breath.
Pleural Effusion
Withpleural effusion, excessive bodily fluids build up between the membranes that line the lung, called the pleura. This can compress the lungs, reducing the amount of oxygen that reaches the small air sacs of the lung (thealveoli). The fluid can be benign or contain cancer cells, the latter of which is referred to asmalignant pleural effusion.
Pericardial Effusion
Fluid can also build up between the membranes that line the heart and lead topericardial effusion. The pressure created can compress the heart, reducing the volume of blood that is pumped through the body and, in turn, the amount of oxygen supplied to tissues.
Shortness of breath is considered a characteristic feature of pericardial effusion—a condition that is present in around 72% of people with advanced lung cancer.
Lung Infections
Lung infections such aspneumoniaare common with lung cancer, and shortness of breath is sometimes the only clue that alower respiratory infectionis developing.
Radiation Pneumonitis
Radiation pneumonitisis a common side effect of radiation therapy for lung cancer. Exposure to radiation can lead to generalized inflammation of the lungs, causing airways to narrow and secrete excess mucus. Shortness of breath is a common related feature.
It is important to treat radiation pneumonitis aggressively since it can progress topulmonary fibrosis, in which the tissues of the lungs become permanently scarred. This can lead to chronic shortness of breath and overall diminished lung function.
Pulmonary Embolism
People with lung cancer, especiallylung adenocarcinoma, have a significantly increased risk of developingblood clotsin their legs (venous thrombosis). These clots can then break off and travel to the lungs, causing apulmonary embolism.
Symptoms of pulmonary embolism may initially be mild but gradually progress. It can also develop dramatically with severe and sudden shortness of breath and chest pain. Pain, swelling, redness, and/or tenderness of the calves are also commonly noted.
Because pulmonary emboli are common in people with advanced lung cancer, lifelong treatment with blood thinners may be required.
What’s the Link Between Knee Pain and Lung Cancer?
Anemia
Shortness of breath is a common feature of anemia, particularly when it is severe. Anemia is readily treatable, even in the more advanced stages of lung cancer.
Drug Allergy
Many of the medications used to treat lung cancer can cause allergic reactions. Althoughdrug hypersensitivitycan occur with most chemotherapy drugs, it is more common with L-asparaginase, Taxol (paclitaxel),Taxotere (docetaxel), Matulane (procarbazine), and Cytosar (cytarabine).
A drug allergy may be mild, causing itching, mild diffuse rash, and mild shortness of breath. But it can also develop rapidly and lead to a potentially life-threatening condition known asanaphylaxis.
When to Call 911Seek emergency care if you develop a severe rash, shortness of breath, wheezing, rapid or irregular heart rate, lightheadedness, or the swelling of the face, tongue, or throat after undergoing chemo. If left untreated, anaphylaxis can lead to shock, coma, and death.
When to Call 911
Seek emergency care if you develop a severe rash, shortness of breath, wheezing, rapid or irregular heart rate, lightheadedness, or the swelling of the face, tongue, or throat after undergoing chemo. If left untreated, anaphylaxis can lead to shock, coma, and death.
Anxiety
It is not uncommon to experienceanxietywith lung cancer, which can not only manifest with restlessness, irritability, and insomnia but also physical symptoms such as rapid heart rate and shortness of breath.
Anxiety can amplify the sensation of breathlessness and vice versa. Anxiety can often be treated withanxiolytic drugs or counseling.
Associated Medical Conditions
People with lung cancer often have other chronic medical conditions such aschronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),congestive heart failure,asthma, andhypothyroidism.Shortness of breath is common with all of these disorders and may require different treatments to be controlled.
Obesity can also exacerbate shortness of breath when pressure from the abdomen restricts the amount of air that can be drawn into the lungs.
If you have increased shortness of breath, there are a number of lab tests and imaging studies your healthcare provider may order.
Lab Tests
The first step usually involvespulse oximetryto check your oxygen saturation levels.Arterial blood gases (ABG)can measure the acidity (pH) and levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in a sample of blood. This information offers insight on how well oxygen is being delivered and carbon dioxide is being removed from tissues.
Acomplete blood count (CBC)can help determine if you have anemia, an infection, or an inflammatory reaction, providing clues as to the underlying cause.
Imaging Studies
Your healthcare provider will also likely order an imaging test like achest X-rayorcomputed tomography (CT)scan to see if there is any evidence of obstruction, pneumonia, or effusion.
If the progression of cancer is suspected,magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with contrastor apositron emission tomography (PET)scan may be ordered. MRIs are especially useful in imaging soft tissue, including smaller tumors. PET scans can detect metabolic changes that occur when cancer progresses and can often spotmetastases(the spread of cancer) that other imaging techniques cannot.
Suspected pulmonary embolisms can be diagnosed with another imaging technique called aventilation-perfusion (VQ) scan.
If the healthcare provider suspects a tumor is obstructing an airway, abronchoscopymay be performed. This involves the insertion of a flexible scope into the airways to directly view tissues.
How Lung Cancer Is Diagnosed
Grading Dyspnea
When referring to shortness of breath, it’s important to distinguish the subjective sensation of not getting enough air from the physical signs of impaired respiration. The two are often related, but not always.
The sensation of breathlessness doesn’t necessarily reflect theoxygen saturationin the blood or the amount of oxygen being delivered to tissues.
Some people can have low blood oxygen but not feel short of breath. Others may report significant shortness of breath even if oxygen levels are normal.
Healthcare providers can get a clearer idea of the level of care needed based on how a person responds to dyspnea. Someone who gets short of breath after walking a few feet, for instance, would be treated differently than someone who gets dyspnea after walking a few blocks.
The treatment of dyspnea is focused on reducing shortness of breath, managing anxiety, and treating the underlying cause.
If your symptoms are mild, your oncologist orprimary care physicianmay be able to manage or treat your symptoms. Chronic dyspnea related to advanced lung cancer usually benefits frompalliative care teamsthat focus on managing symptoms and improving the quality of life for those living with cancer.
Medications
Opioid medicationssuch as morphine not only relax the airways and improve breathing but can help relieve anxiety. People with severe or chronic anxiety may benefit from anxiolytic drugs like Ativan (lorazepam), Valium (diazepam), and Klonopin (clonazepam) to reduce the sensation of shortness of breath.
How Lung Cancer Is Treated
Airway Obstruction Resolution
Radiation therapycan be very effective at treating cancer at the site of an obstruction, providing rapid relief of respiratory symptoms in people receiving palliative care.
Effusion Management
It is not uncommon for a few liters of fluid to accumulate in people with severe pleural effusion. This can be treated with a procedure called athoracentesisin which a long, thin needle is inserted through the chest wall to drain fluid from thepleural cavity.
Because recurrence is common, a stent may be placed in the chest wall with an external outlet so that fluids can be drained at home when needed. In other cases, a procedure known aspleurodesismay be used to bond tissues in the pleural cavity together so that fluids have no space to accumulate.
Pericardial effusions are managed in a similar way. Treatment options include pericardiocentesis, in which fluid is withdrawn from the pericardial cavity. Stenting may also be used as well as a surgical procedure called a pericardiectomy that removes some or all of the membrane surrounding the heart.
Oxygen Therapy
Oxygen therapy, either continuous or intermittent, may be needed if your oxygen saturation is low.
Portable oxygen therapy has improved dramatically over the last few decades, and many people can live active lives despite the regular need for oxygen. For those who have COPD and lung cancer, oxygen therapy may improve survival.
Pulmonary Rehabilitation
If shortness of breath is related to surgery or radiation therapy, your healthcare provider may recommend pulmonary rehabilitation as an option. Pulmonary rehabilitation is a relatively recent therapeutic approach that can help manage your breathing problems, increase stamina, and decrease breathlessness.
Among its facets, pulmonary rehabilitation typically involves resistance exercises to build strength in the respiratory muscles andbreathing exercisesto increase oxygen levels and decrease the sensation of breathlessness.
In addition to medical treatments, there are a number of simple things people can do to better cope with the feeling of breathlessness that can stem from lung cancer.
Breathe Fresh Air
It is fairly obvious that people with dyspnea should avoid smoking orsecondhand smoke. But there are other air quality issues that can impact your breathing both in and out of the home.
If you live in an urban area and have anair quality alert, stay indoors. Shut all windows and doors, and use an air conditioner to regulate air temperature. If you need to go outdoors, wear a face mask.
Avoid air fresheners, perfumes, and noxious fumes from household cleaners, paint, or varnish.
Tip to Improve Indoor Air Quality
Prevent Infection
How to Reduce Your Infection Risk During Chemotherapy
Exercise
Routine mild to moderate exercise can be beneficial to improving your lung function and reducing shortness of breath.Aerobic exerciseis especially helpful as it strengthens the heart and improves oxygen capacity. Examples include walking, dancing, or any activity that increases your heart rate.
You should ideally exercise three or more times per week, increasing the intensity and duration gradually. Avoid over-exercising, which can lead to respiratory distress if you have diminished lung capacity or function.
Food and Drink
Staying well-hydrated can help reduce the build-up of mucus in the airways, especially if you are using oxygen. Some people find that dairy products can worsen their shortness of breath due to the thickening of mucosal secretions. Eating a smaller meal several times a day and taking small bites can also be beneficial.
Sleeping
Many people find that their shortness of breath increases when lying flat. Sleeping at a 45-degree angle may help. Instead of struggling with normal pillows, use awedge pillowto prop you up securely. Sleeping in a cool room can also improve breathing.
Breathing Techniques
Breathing exercisescan be very helpful, especially if you also have COPD. Many people with dyspnea find that pursed-lip breathing (in which you inhale slowly and deeply through the nose and exhale slowly and fully through pursed lips) not only decreases breathlessness but gradually increases lung capacity.
Diaphragmatic breathing, also known as belly breathing, can also increase the amount of air entering the lung while reducing stress and anxiety.
Stress Reduction
If you feel that you cannot cope, ask your healthcare provider for a referral to a psychologist or psychiatrist who can provide one-on-one or group counseling. Psychiatrists can also prescribe anxiolytic or antidepressant medications if you need them.
A Word From Verywell
As important as it is to get the appropriate medical treatment for dyspnea and its underlying cause, you may also benefit from exercise, stress management, counseling, and building a strong support network of family, friends, and health providers. Over the long term, this can help you better cope with the physical and emotional challenges of living with lung cancer.
Where to Find Lung Cancer Support Groups
36 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ban WH, Lee JM, Ha JH, et al.Dyspnea as a prognostic factor in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.Yonsei Med J. 2016;57(5):1063-1069. doi:10.3349/ymj.2016.57.5.1063Garrido D, Assioun JJ, Keshishyan A, Sanchez-Gonzalez MA, Goubran B.Respiratory rate variability as a prognostic factor in hospitalized patients transferred to the intensive care unit.Cureus. 2018;10(1):e2100. doi:10.7759/cureus.2100Williams AC, Grant M, Tiep B, Kim JY, Hayter J.Dyspnea management in early stage lung cancer: A palliative perspective.J Hosp Palliat Nurs. 2012;14(5):341-342. doi:10.1097/NJH.0b013e31825e4250Verma A, Goh SK, Tai DYH, et al.Outcome of advanced lung cancer with central airway obstruction without central airway obstruction.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(2). doi:10.1183/23120541.00173-2017Brocki BC, Westerdahl E, Langer D, Souza DSR, Andreasen JJ.Decrease in pulmonary function and oxygenation after lung resection.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(1). doi:10.1183/23120541.00055-2017American Cancer Society.Radiation therapy side effects.Cleveland Clinic.Pericardial effusion.Nguyen O, Ouellette D.Survival post surgery for malignant pericardial effusion.Clin Pract. 2011;1(2):e38. doi:10.4081/cp.2011.e38Valvani A, Martin A, Devarajan A, Chandy D.Postobstructive pneumonia in lung cancer.Ann Transl Med. 2019;7(15):357. doi:10.21037/atm.2019.05.26Jain V, Berman AT.Radiation pneumonitis: Old problem, new tricks.Cancers (Basel). 2018;10(7):222. doi:10.3390/cancers10070222Ma L, Wen Z.Risk factors and prognosis of pulmonary embolism in patients with lung cancer.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(16):e6638. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006638American Cancer Society.Low red blood cell counts (anemia).Baldo BA, Pham NH.Adverse reactions to targeted and non-targeted chemotherapeutic drugs with emphasis on hypersensitivity responses and the invasive metastatic switch.Cancer Metastasis Rev.2013;32(3-4):723-61. doi:10.1007/s10555-013-9447-3Danhauer SC, Dressler EV, Brown WM, et al.Reducing anxiety and dyspnea via device-guided breathing (RELAX): a multi-site feasibility study in post-treatment lung cancer survivors at community cancer clinics (WF-01213).Integr Cancer Ther. 2023;22:15347354231164406. doi:10.1177/15347354231164406Roy S, Vallepu S, Barrios C, Hunter K.Comparison of comorbid conditions between cancer survivors and age-matched patients without cancer.J Clin Med Res. 2018;10(12):911-9. doi:10.14740/jocmr3617wNational Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS).American Cancer Society.Shortness of breath.Rice SL, Friedman KP.Clinical PET-MR imaging in breast cancer and lung cancer.PET Clin. 2016;11(4):387-402. doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2016.05.008Rawat D, Sharma S.Dyspnea. In: StatPearls [Internet].Andolfi M, Potenza R, Capozzi R, Liparulo V, Puma F, Yasufuku K.The role of bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of early lung cancer: a review.J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(11):3329-3337. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.11.81Spiromics.Modified medical research council dyspnea scale.Bausewein C, Simon ST.Shortness of breath and cough in patients in palliative care.Dtsch Arztebl Int.2013;110(33-34):563-71. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2013.0563Abdel Karim N, Khaddasn S, Shehata M, et al.Stenting in non-small cell lung cancer: how does it affect the outcomes?.Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2020;21(1):175-8. doi:10.31557/APJCP.2020.21.1.175Oberg C, Folch E, Santacruz JF.Management of malignant airway obstruction.AME Medical Journal. 2018;3:115-115. doi:10.21037/amj.2018.11.06Desai NR, Lee HJ.Diagnosis and management of malignant pleural effusions: State of the art in 2017.J Thorac Dis.2017;9(Suppl 10):S1111-22. doi:10.21037/jtd.2017.07.79NHS Cambridge University Hospitals.Pleurodesis.Cleveland Clinic.Pericardiectomy.National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Oxygen Therapy.Sharma BB, Singh V.Pulmonary rehabilitation: An overview.Lung India.2011;28(4):276-84. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.85690Vijayan VK, Paramesh H, Salvi SS, Dalal AA.Enhancing indoor air quality -The air filter advantage.Lung India.2015;32(5):473-9. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.164174Dunbar A, Tai E, Nielsen DB, Shropshire S, Richardson LC.Preventing infections during cancer treatment: development of an interactive patient education website.Clin J Oncol Nurs.2014;18(4):426-31. doi:10.1188/14.CJON.426-431Avancini A, Sartori G, Gkountakos A, et al.Physical activity and exercise in lung cancer care: Will promises be fulfilled?.Oncologist.2020;25(3):e555-69. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2019-0463Protudjer JLP, Olén O, Vetander M, et al.Milk-related symptoms and immunoglobulin E reactivity in Swedish children from early life to adolescence.Nutrients. 2018;10(5):651. doi:10.3390/nu10050651Cleveland Clinic.Pursed lip breathing.Cleveland Clinic.Diaphragmatic breathing.Van den Hurk DG, Schellekens MP, Molema J, Speckens AE, Van der Drift MA.Mindfulness-based stress reduction for lung cancer patients and their partners: Results of a mixed methods pilot study.Palliat Med. 2015;29(7):652-60. doi:10.1177/0269216315572720
36 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Ban WH, Lee JM, Ha JH, et al.Dyspnea as a prognostic factor in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.Yonsei Med J. 2016;57(5):1063-1069. doi:10.3349/ymj.2016.57.5.1063Garrido D, Assioun JJ, Keshishyan A, Sanchez-Gonzalez MA, Goubran B.Respiratory rate variability as a prognostic factor in hospitalized patients transferred to the intensive care unit.Cureus. 2018;10(1):e2100. doi:10.7759/cureus.2100Williams AC, Grant M, Tiep B, Kim JY, Hayter J.Dyspnea management in early stage lung cancer: A palliative perspective.J Hosp Palliat Nurs. 2012;14(5):341-342. doi:10.1097/NJH.0b013e31825e4250Verma A, Goh SK, Tai DYH, et al.Outcome of advanced lung cancer with central airway obstruction without central airway obstruction.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(2). doi:10.1183/23120541.00173-2017Brocki BC, Westerdahl E, Langer D, Souza DSR, Andreasen JJ.Decrease in pulmonary function and oxygenation after lung resection.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(1). doi:10.1183/23120541.00055-2017American Cancer Society.Radiation therapy side effects.Cleveland Clinic.Pericardial effusion.Nguyen O, Ouellette D.Survival post surgery for malignant pericardial effusion.Clin Pract. 2011;1(2):e38. doi:10.4081/cp.2011.e38Valvani A, Martin A, Devarajan A, Chandy D.Postobstructive pneumonia in lung cancer.Ann Transl Med. 2019;7(15):357. doi:10.21037/atm.2019.05.26Jain V, Berman AT.Radiation pneumonitis: Old problem, new tricks.Cancers (Basel). 2018;10(7):222. doi:10.3390/cancers10070222Ma L, Wen Z.Risk factors and prognosis of pulmonary embolism in patients with lung cancer.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(16):e6638. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006638American Cancer Society.Low red blood cell counts (anemia).Baldo BA, Pham NH.Adverse reactions to targeted and non-targeted chemotherapeutic drugs with emphasis on hypersensitivity responses and the invasive metastatic switch.Cancer Metastasis Rev.2013;32(3-4):723-61. doi:10.1007/s10555-013-9447-3Danhauer SC, Dressler EV, Brown WM, et al.Reducing anxiety and dyspnea via device-guided breathing (RELAX): a multi-site feasibility study in post-treatment lung cancer survivors at community cancer clinics (WF-01213).Integr Cancer Ther. 2023;22:15347354231164406. doi:10.1177/15347354231164406Roy S, Vallepu S, Barrios C, Hunter K.Comparison of comorbid conditions between cancer survivors and age-matched patients without cancer.J Clin Med Res. 2018;10(12):911-9. doi:10.14740/jocmr3617wNational Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS).American Cancer Society.Shortness of breath.Rice SL, Friedman KP.Clinical PET-MR imaging in breast cancer and lung cancer.PET Clin. 2016;11(4):387-402. doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2016.05.008Rawat D, Sharma S.Dyspnea. In: StatPearls [Internet].Andolfi M, Potenza R, Capozzi R, Liparulo V, Puma F, Yasufuku K.The role of bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of early lung cancer: a review.J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(11):3329-3337. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.11.81Spiromics.Modified medical research council dyspnea scale.Bausewein C, Simon ST.Shortness of breath and cough in patients in palliative care.Dtsch Arztebl Int.2013;110(33-34):563-71. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2013.0563Abdel Karim N, Khaddasn S, Shehata M, et al.Stenting in non-small cell lung cancer: how does it affect the outcomes?.Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2020;21(1):175-8. doi:10.31557/APJCP.2020.21.1.175Oberg C, Folch E, Santacruz JF.Management of malignant airway obstruction.AME Medical Journal. 2018;3:115-115. doi:10.21037/amj.2018.11.06Desai NR, Lee HJ.Diagnosis and management of malignant pleural effusions: State of the art in 2017.J Thorac Dis.2017;9(Suppl 10):S1111-22. doi:10.21037/jtd.2017.07.79NHS Cambridge University Hospitals.Pleurodesis.Cleveland Clinic.Pericardiectomy.National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Oxygen Therapy.Sharma BB, Singh V.Pulmonary rehabilitation: An overview.Lung India.2011;28(4):276-84. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.85690Vijayan VK, Paramesh H, Salvi SS, Dalal AA.Enhancing indoor air quality -The air filter advantage.Lung India.2015;32(5):473-9. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.164174Dunbar A, Tai E, Nielsen DB, Shropshire S, Richardson LC.Preventing infections during cancer treatment: development of an interactive patient education website.Clin J Oncol Nurs.2014;18(4):426-31. doi:10.1188/14.CJON.426-431Avancini A, Sartori G, Gkountakos A, et al.Physical activity and exercise in lung cancer care: Will promises be fulfilled?.Oncologist.2020;25(3):e555-69. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2019-0463Protudjer JLP, Olén O, Vetander M, et al.Milk-related symptoms and immunoglobulin E reactivity in Swedish children from early life to adolescence.Nutrients. 2018;10(5):651. doi:10.3390/nu10050651Cleveland Clinic.Pursed lip breathing.Cleveland Clinic.Diaphragmatic breathing.Van den Hurk DG, Schellekens MP, Molema J, Speckens AE, Van der Drift MA.Mindfulness-based stress reduction for lung cancer patients and their partners: Results of a mixed methods pilot study.Palliat Med. 2015;29(7):652-60. doi:10.1177/0269216315572720
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Ban WH, Lee JM, Ha JH, et al.Dyspnea as a prognostic factor in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.Yonsei Med J. 2016;57(5):1063-1069. doi:10.3349/ymj.2016.57.5.1063Garrido D, Assioun JJ, Keshishyan A, Sanchez-Gonzalez MA, Goubran B.Respiratory rate variability as a prognostic factor in hospitalized patients transferred to the intensive care unit.Cureus. 2018;10(1):e2100. doi:10.7759/cureus.2100Williams AC, Grant M, Tiep B, Kim JY, Hayter J.Dyspnea management in early stage lung cancer: A palliative perspective.J Hosp Palliat Nurs. 2012;14(5):341-342. doi:10.1097/NJH.0b013e31825e4250Verma A, Goh SK, Tai DYH, et al.Outcome of advanced lung cancer with central airway obstruction without central airway obstruction.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(2). doi:10.1183/23120541.00173-2017Brocki BC, Westerdahl E, Langer D, Souza DSR, Andreasen JJ.Decrease in pulmonary function and oxygenation after lung resection.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(1). doi:10.1183/23120541.00055-2017American Cancer Society.Radiation therapy side effects.Cleveland Clinic.Pericardial effusion.Nguyen O, Ouellette D.Survival post surgery for malignant pericardial effusion.Clin Pract. 2011;1(2):e38. doi:10.4081/cp.2011.e38Valvani A, Martin A, Devarajan A, Chandy D.Postobstructive pneumonia in lung cancer.Ann Transl Med. 2019;7(15):357. doi:10.21037/atm.2019.05.26Jain V, Berman AT.Radiation pneumonitis: Old problem, new tricks.Cancers (Basel). 2018;10(7):222. doi:10.3390/cancers10070222Ma L, Wen Z.Risk factors and prognosis of pulmonary embolism in patients with lung cancer.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(16):e6638. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006638American Cancer Society.Low red blood cell counts (anemia).Baldo BA, Pham NH.Adverse reactions to targeted and non-targeted chemotherapeutic drugs with emphasis on hypersensitivity responses and the invasive metastatic switch.Cancer Metastasis Rev.2013;32(3-4):723-61. doi:10.1007/s10555-013-9447-3Danhauer SC, Dressler EV, Brown WM, et al.Reducing anxiety and dyspnea via device-guided breathing (RELAX): a multi-site feasibility study in post-treatment lung cancer survivors at community cancer clinics (WF-01213).Integr Cancer Ther. 2023;22:15347354231164406. doi:10.1177/15347354231164406Roy S, Vallepu S, Barrios C, Hunter K.Comparison of comorbid conditions between cancer survivors and age-matched patients without cancer.J Clin Med Res. 2018;10(12):911-9. doi:10.14740/jocmr3617wNational Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS).American Cancer Society.Shortness of breath.Rice SL, Friedman KP.Clinical PET-MR imaging in breast cancer and lung cancer.PET Clin. 2016;11(4):387-402. doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2016.05.008Rawat D, Sharma S.Dyspnea. In: StatPearls [Internet].Andolfi M, Potenza R, Capozzi R, Liparulo V, Puma F, Yasufuku K.The role of bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of early lung cancer: a review.J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(11):3329-3337. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.11.81Spiromics.Modified medical research council dyspnea scale.Bausewein C, Simon ST.Shortness of breath and cough in patients in palliative care.Dtsch Arztebl Int.2013;110(33-34):563-71. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2013.0563Abdel Karim N, Khaddasn S, Shehata M, et al.Stenting in non-small cell lung cancer: how does it affect the outcomes?.Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2020;21(1):175-8. doi:10.31557/APJCP.2020.21.1.175Oberg C, Folch E, Santacruz JF.Management of malignant airway obstruction.AME Medical Journal. 2018;3:115-115. doi:10.21037/amj.2018.11.06Desai NR, Lee HJ.Diagnosis and management of malignant pleural effusions: State of the art in 2017.J Thorac Dis.2017;9(Suppl 10):S1111-22. doi:10.21037/jtd.2017.07.79NHS Cambridge University Hospitals.Pleurodesis.Cleveland Clinic.Pericardiectomy.National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Oxygen Therapy.Sharma BB, Singh V.Pulmonary rehabilitation: An overview.Lung India.2011;28(4):276-84. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.85690Vijayan VK, Paramesh H, Salvi SS, Dalal AA.Enhancing indoor air quality -The air filter advantage.Lung India.2015;32(5):473-9. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.164174Dunbar A, Tai E, Nielsen DB, Shropshire S, Richardson LC.Preventing infections during cancer treatment: development of an interactive patient education website.Clin J Oncol Nurs.2014;18(4):426-31. doi:10.1188/14.CJON.426-431Avancini A, Sartori G, Gkountakos A, et al.Physical activity and exercise in lung cancer care: Will promises be fulfilled?.Oncologist.2020;25(3):e555-69. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2019-0463Protudjer JLP, Olén O, Vetander M, et al.Milk-related symptoms and immunoglobulin E reactivity in Swedish children from early life to adolescence.Nutrients. 2018;10(5):651. doi:10.3390/nu10050651Cleveland Clinic.Pursed lip breathing.Cleveland Clinic.Diaphragmatic breathing.Van den Hurk DG, Schellekens MP, Molema J, Speckens AE, Van der Drift MA.Mindfulness-based stress reduction for lung cancer patients and their partners: Results of a mixed methods pilot study.Palliat Med. 2015;29(7):652-60. doi:10.1177/0269216315572720
Ban WH, Lee JM, Ha JH, et al.Dyspnea as a prognostic factor in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.Yonsei Med J. 2016;57(5):1063-1069. doi:10.3349/ymj.2016.57.5.1063
Garrido D, Assioun JJ, Keshishyan A, Sanchez-Gonzalez MA, Goubran B.Respiratory rate variability as a prognostic factor in hospitalized patients transferred to the intensive care unit.Cureus. 2018;10(1):e2100. doi:10.7759/cureus.2100
Williams AC, Grant M, Tiep B, Kim JY, Hayter J.Dyspnea management in early stage lung cancer: A palliative perspective.J Hosp Palliat Nurs. 2012;14(5):341-342. doi:10.1097/NJH.0b013e31825e4250
Verma A, Goh SK, Tai DYH, et al.Outcome of advanced lung cancer with central airway obstruction without central airway obstruction.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(2). doi:10.1183/23120541.00173-2017
Brocki BC, Westerdahl E, Langer D, Souza DSR, Andreasen JJ.Decrease in pulmonary function and oxygenation after lung resection.ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(1). doi:10.1183/23120541.00055-2017
American Cancer Society.Radiation therapy side effects.
Cleveland Clinic.Pericardial effusion.
Nguyen O, Ouellette D.Survival post surgery for malignant pericardial effusion.Clin Pract. 2011;1(2):e38. doi:10.4081/cp.2011.e38
Valvani A, Martin A, Devarajan A, Chandy D.Postobstructive pneumonia in lung cancer.Ann Transl Med. 2019;7(15):357. doi:10.21037/atm.2019.05.26
Jain V, Berman AT.Radiation pneumonitis: Old problem, new tricks.Cancers (Basel). 2018;10(7):222. doi:10.3390/cancers10070222
Ma L, Wen Z.Risk factors and prognosis of pulmonary embolism in patients with lung cancer.Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(16):e6638. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000006638
American Cancer Society.Low red blood cell counts (anemia).
Baldo BA, Pham NH.Adverse reactions to targeted and non-targeted chemotherapeutic drugs with emphasis on hypersensitivity responses and the invasive metastatic switch.Cancer Metastasis Rev.2013;32(3-4):723-61. doi:10.1007/s10555-013-9447-3
Danhauer SC, Dressler EV, Brown WM, et al.Reducing anxiety and dyspnea via device-guided breathing (RELAX): a multi-site feasibility study in post-treatment lung cancer survivors at community cancer clinics (WF-01213).Integr Cancer Ther. 2023;22:15347354231164406. doi:10.1177/15347354231164406
Roy S, Vallepu S, Barrios C, Hunter K.Comparison of comorbid conditions between cancer survivors and age-matched patients without cancer.J Clin Med Res. 2018;10(12):911-9. doi:10.14740/jocmr3617w
National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS).
American Cancer Society.Shortness of breath.
Rice SL, Friedman KP.Clinical PET-MR imaging in breast cancer and lung cancer.PET Clin. 2016;11(4):387-402. doi:10.1016/j.cpet.2016.05.008
Rawat D, Sharma S.Dyspnea. In: StatPearls [Internet].
Andolfi M, Potenza R, Capozzi R, Liparulo V, Puma F, Yasufuku K.The role of bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of early lung cancer: a review.J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(11):3329-3337. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.11.81
Spiromics.Modified medical research council dyspnea scale.
Bausewein C, Simon ST.Shortness of breath and cough in patients in palliative care.Dtsch Arztebl Int.2013;110(33-34):563-71. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2013.0563
Abdel Karim N, Khaddasn S, Shehata M, et al.Stenting in non-small cell lung cancer: how does it affect the outcomes?.Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2020;21(1):175-8. doi:10.31557/APJCP.2020.21.1.175
Oberg C, Folch E, Santacruz JF.Management of malignant airway obstruction.AME Medical Journal. 2018;3:115-115. doi:10.21037/amj.2018.11.06
Desai NR, Lee HJ.Diagnosis and management of malignant pleural effusions: State of the art in 2017.J Thorac Dis.2017;9(Suppl 10):S1111-22. doi:10.21037/jtd.2017.07.79
NHS Cambridge University Hospitals.Pleurodesis.
Cleveland Clinic.Pericardiectomy.
National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.Oxygen Therapy.
Sharma BB, Singh V.Pulmonary rehabilitation: An overview.Lung India.2011;28(4):276-84. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.85690
Vijayan VK, Paramesh H, Salvi SS, Dalal AA.Enhancing indoor air quality -The air filter advantage.Lung India.2015;32(5):473-9. doi:10.4103/0970-2113.164174
Dunbar A, Tai E, Nielsen DB, Shropshire S, Richardson LC.Preventing infections during cancer treatment: development of an interactive patient education website.Clin J Oncol Nurs.2014;18(4):426-31. doi:10.1188/14.CJON.426-431
Avancini A, Sartori G, Gkountakos A, et al.Physical activity and exercise in lung cancer care: Will promises be fulfilled?.Oncologist.2020;25(3):e555-69. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.2019-0463
Protudjer JLP, Olén O, Vetander M, et al.Milk-related symptoms and immunoglobulin E reactivity in Swedish children from early life to adolescence.Nutrients. 2018;10(5):651. doi:10.3390/nu10050651
Cleveland Clinic.Pursed lip breathing.
Cleveland Clinic.Diaphragmatic breathing.
Van den Hurk DG, Schellekens MP, Molema J, Speckens AE, Van der Drift MA.Mindfulness-based stress reduction for lung cancer patients and their partners: Results of a mixed methods pilot study.Palliat Med. 2015;29(7):652-60. doi:10.1177/0269216315572720
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