Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsChoosing TreatmentReconstruction After MastectomyReconstruction OptionsOther TreatmentsFrequently Asked Questions
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Choosing Treatment
Reconstruction After Mastectomy
Reconstruction Options
Other Treatments
Frequently Asked Questions
This article is part ofBreast Cancer and Black Women, a destination in our Health Divide series.
Undergoingbreast reconstructionsurgery after amastectomy(removal of the entire breast) is abreast cancertreatment to rebuild the breast using implants or tissue. Research shows that Black patients, specifically Black cis women, are less likely to receive a mastectomy and less likely to receive breast reconstruction after a mastectomy compared to their White counterparts.
Several factors contribute to these disparities, including various barriers to accessing care, a lack of trustworthiness across the healthcare system, and patient beliefs or preferences.
This article provides an overview of mastectomy and breast reconstruction choices among Black patients with breast cancer.
SDI Productions / Getty Images
Choosing Breast Cancer Treatment
Studies have shown that Black women are more likely than White women to choose breast conservation (alumpectomy, removing a small portion of tissue) over breast removal (mastectomy), even withaggressive subtypesof breast cancer.
Several factors influence thisdisparity in breast cancertreatment, including:
Some studies have noted that Black breast cancer patients have reported feeling less worried than White ones about cancer recurrence and are less likely to believe that mastectomy would have better success rates than other, less aggressive treatment options.
Data shows that Black patients with breast cancer are less likely to pursuemastectomy of a healthy breastto prevent a recurrence. These racial disparities, in part, are due to the communication people of color have historically experienced with healthcare providers.Black breast cancer patients are less likely to receive adequate information about cancer treatment options.
Barriers to Breast Reconstruction After Mastectomy
After a mastectomy (removal of one or both breasts), some people receive breast reconstruction (surgical reshaping of the breast). Data shows Black patients are less likely to receive reconstruction than White ones, and several studies have examined why.
Similar to the factors that impact Black patients’ lumpectomy or mastectomy choices, experts have identified the following:
People most likely to receive breast reconstruction identified as White, had higher household incomes, and were covered under private or managed care health insurance plans.
Breast Reconstruction Options
Breast reconstruction after mastectomycan involve implant or tissue reconstruction to reshape the breast.
Implant Reconstruction
Implantsare breast-shaped sacs filled with different materials and surgically placed in the chest area to re-create the breast. They’re individually sized based on your preference and are made out of different materials, including:
The type of implant will depend on factors such as the surgical technique used, which implant may work best for your anatomy, and personal preference.
Tissue Reconstruction
Tissue reconstruction involves what’s known as aflap technique. This is when a plastic surgeon uses tissue, skin, and/or fat from other areas of your body for breast reconstruction.
Different flap techniques are based on where and how the surgeon places the incision and performs the procedure, including theTRAM,DIEP, andlatissimus dorsitechniques. Another option may be to utilize both implant and tissue reconstruction procedures for the best results.
To advance equitable, patient-centered care, healthcare providers must understand and support thebreast reconstruction preferencesof patients of color—ensuring all treatment options are available for those who desire to pursue them.Healthcare providers should make the time to discuss resources, referrals, and recommendations for the patient to make a fully informed decision.
Other Breast Cancer Treatment Options
Depending on your situation, healthcare providers may also recommend one or more of the following:
Researchers are also looking into the role thatcomplementary and alternative medicine (CAM)may be able to play within the breast cancer treatment plan.This includes:
This field of research is still underway, and there are still many unknowns regarding the effectiveness of these integrative cancer therapies.
Experts have highlighted persistent socioeconomic gaps (a lack of health insurance, transportation challenges, and financial strain) along with delayed treatment start times compared to White patients as issues that have pervaded Black patients’ breast cancer treatment experience.
Summary
Data shows Black patients, specifically Black women, are less likely to receive a mastectomy for breast cancer and also less likely to receive post-mastectomy breast reconstruction than White women. The complex reasons behind these disparities include systemic barriers to care, healthcare provider bias, and patient preference. While breast cancer treatment and reconstruction is an individual choice, researchers recommend focusing more on how healthcare systems can ensure equitable access to these options is available, if desired.
A Word From Verywell
Reviewing your options for breast cancer treatment can feel intimidating andemotional, but you’re not alone. Know that you can ask a healthcare provider for a referral to asocial workerspecializing in cancer treatment to help you cope.Support organizationslike theAfrican American Breast Cancer Alliance (AABCA)andSisters Network Inc. are available to provide awareness, education, resources, and financial assistance tailored to the Black community.
Frequently Asked QuestionsBreast cancer treatment is highly personalized and commonly involves a combination of treatment options. Surgery is typically recommended for early-stage breast cancer, while chemotherapy is recommended for later-stage or quicker-growing breast cancers.Each person’s exact timeline formastectomy surgery recoverywill be slightly different. Healing from a mastectomy on its own may take around three weeks. Recovery can take roughly four to six weeks for people who havereconstructive surgeryafter mastectomy.Learn MoreMastectomy Surgery: Long-Term CareIn most cases, yes. Federal law requires group health plans to cover reconstructive procedures after mastectomy.The law doesn’t apply to Medicare, Medicaid, specific government plans, and plans through religious organizations, but you may still have some coverage.Learn MoreWhere to Find Financial Assistance If You Have Cancer
Breast cancer treatment is highly personalized and commonly involves a combination of treatment options. Surgery is typically recommended for early-stage breast cancer, while chemotherapy is recommended for later-stage or quicker-growing breast cancers.
Each person’s exact timeline formastectomy surgery recoverywill be slightly different. Healing from a mastectomy on its own may take around three weeks. Recovery can take roughly four to six weeks for people who havereconstructive surgeryafter mastectomy.Learn MoreMastectomy Surgery: Long-Term Care
Each person’s exact timeline formastectomy surgery recoverywill be slightly different. Healing from a mastectomy on its own may take around three weeks. Recovery can take roughly four to six weeks for people who havereconstructive surgeryafter mastectomy.
Learn MoreMastectomy Surgery: Long-Term Care
In most cases, yes. Federal law requires group health plans to cover reconstructive procedures after mastectomy.The law doesn’t apply to Medicare, Medicaid, specific government plans, and plans through religious organizations, but you may still have some coverage.Learn MoreWhere to Find Financial Assistance If You Have Cancer
In most cases, yes. Federal law requires group health plans to cover reconstructive procedures after mastectomy.The law doesn’t apply to Medicare, Medicaid, specific government plans, and plans through religious organizations, but you may still have some coverage.
Learn MoreWhere to Find Financial Assistance If You Have Cancer
29 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Pal T, Cragun D, Lewis C, Bonner D, Camperlengo LP, Vadaparampil ST.Disparities in cancer risk management among BRCA carriers across a diverse sample of young Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White breast cancer survivors.J Clin Oncol. 2016;34(18_suppl):LBA1504-LBA1504. doi:10.1200/JCO.2016.34.18_suppl.LBA1504Breastcancer.org.Minority women less likely to have immediate breast reconstruction.Oppong BA, Bhattacharyya O, Li Y, Obeng-Gyasi S, Sheppard VB.Receipt of breast conservation over mastectomy in Black women—does breast cancer subtype matter?.J Natl Med Assoc. 2022;114(3):298-307. doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2022.02.007Fayanju OM, Kraenzle S, Drake BF, Oka M, Goodman MS.Perceived barriers to mammography among underserved women in a Breast Health Center Outreach Program.Am J Surg. 2014;208(3):425-434. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.03.005Gu J, Groot G, Boden C, Busch A, Holtslander L, Lim H.Review of factors influencing women’s choice of mastectomy versus breast conserving therapy in early stage breast cancer: a systematic review.Clin Breast Cancer. 2018;18(4):e539-e554. doi:10.1016/j.clbc.2017.12.013Yedjou CG, Sims JN, Miele L, et al.Health and racial disparity in breast cancer.Adv Exp Med Biol. 2019;1152:31-49. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20301-6_3Orom H, Kiviniemi MT, Shavers VL, Ross L, Underwood W, 3rd.Perceived risk for breast cancer and its relationship to mammography in Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites.J Behav Med.2013;36:466–476. doi:10.1007/s10865-012-9443-zHawley ST, Fagerlin A, Janz NK, Katz SJ.Racial/ethnic disparities in knowledge about risks and benefits of breast cancer treatment: does it matter where you go?Health Serv. Res.2008;43:1366–1387. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00843.xJanz NK, Hawley ST, Mujahid MS, et al.Correlates of worry about recurrence in a multiethnic population-based sample of women with breast cancer. Cancer.2011;117:1827–1836. doi:10.1002/cncr.25740Kim Y, McCarthy AM, Bristol M, Armstrong K.Disparities in contralateral prophylactic mastectomy use among women with early stage breast cancer.NPJ Breast Cancer. 2017;3:2. doi:10.1038/s41523-017-0004-zCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.Health equity in cancer: how racism leads to cancer health disparities.Soni SE, Lee MC, Gwede CK.Disparities in use and access to postmastectomy breast reconstruction among African American women: a targeted review of the literature.Cancer Control.2017;24(4):1073274817729053. doi:10.1177/1073274817729053Connors SK, Goodman MS, Myckatyn T, Margenthaler J, Gehlert S.Racial disparities in breast reconstruction at a comprehensive cancer center.J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2022;9(6):2323-2333. doi:10.1007/s40615-021-01169-3Epstein S, Tran BN, Cohen JB, Lin SJ, Singhal D, Lee BT.Racial disparities in postmastectomy breast reconstruction: national trends in utilization from 2005 to 2014.Cancer. 124(13):2774-2784. doi:10.1002/cncr.31395Vandergrift JL, Niland JC, Theriault RL, et al.Time to adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer in National Comprehensive Cancer Network institutions.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(2):104-112. doi:10.1093/jnci/djs506Wheeler SB, Spencer JC, Pinheiro LC, Carey LA, Olshan AF, Reeder-Hayes KE.Financial impact of breast cancer in Black versus White women.J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(17):1695-1701. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.77.6310Fung J, Vang S, Margolies LR, et al.Developing a culturally and linguistically targeted breast cancer educational program for a multicultural population.J Cancer Educ. 2021;36(2):395-400. doi:10.1007/s13187-019-01643-xSisco M, Du H, Warner JP, Howard MA, Winchester DP, Yao K.Have we expanded the equitable delivery of postmastectomy breast reconstruction in the new millennium? Evidence from the national cancer data base.J Am Coll Surg. 2012;215(5):658-666. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2012.07.008American Cancer Society.Breast reconstruction options.Jewell ML, Bengtson BP, Smither K, Nuti G, Perry T.Physical properties of silicone gel breast implants.Aesthet Surg J. 2019;39(3):264-275. doi:10.1093/asj/sjy103Connors SK, Leal IM, Nitturi V, et al.Empowered choices: African-American women’s breast reconstruction decisions.Am J Health Behav. 2021;45(2):352-370. doi:10.5993/AJHB.45.2.14American Cancer Society.Breast reconstruction options.American Cancer Society.Treating breast cancer.Greenlee H, DuPont-Reyes MJ, Balneaves LG, et al.Clinical practice guidelines on the evidence-based use of integrative therapies during and after breast cancer treatment.CA Cancer J Clin. 67(3):194-232. doi:10.3322/caac.21397Aleshire ME, Adegboyega A, Escontrías OA, Edward J, Hatcher J.Access to care as a barrier to mammography for Black women.Policy Polit Nurs Pract. 2021;22(1):28-40. doi:10.1177/1527154420965537American Cancer Society.Treatment of breast cancer stages I-III.Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Mastectomy.National Cancer Institute.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.
29 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Pal T, Cragun D, Lewis C, Bonner D, Camperlengo LP, Vadaparampil ST.Disparities in cancer risk management among BRCA carriers across a diverse sample of young Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White breast cancer survivors.J Clin Oncol. 2016;34(18_suppl):LBA1504-LBA1504. doi:10.1200/JCO.2016.34.18_suppl.LBA1504Breastcancer.org.Minority women less likely to have immediate breast reconstruction.Oppong BA, Bhattacharyya O, Li Y, Obeng-Gyasi S, Sheppard VB.Receipt of breast conservation over mastectomy in Black women—does breast cancer subtype matter?.J Natl Med Assoc. 2022;114(3):298-307. doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2022.02.007Fayanju OM, Kraenzle S, Drake BF, Oka M, Goodman MS.Perceived barriers to mammography among underserved women in a Breast Health Center Outreach Program.Am J Surg. 2014;208(3):425-434. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.03.005Gu J, Groot G, Boden C, Busch A, Holtslander L, Lim H.Review of factors influencing women’s choice of mastectomy versus breast conserving therapy in early stage breast cancer: a systematic review.Clin Breast Cancer. 2018;18(4):e539-e554. doi:10.1016/j.clbc.2017.12.013Yedjou CG, Sims JN, Miele L, et al.Health and racial disparity in breast cancer.Adv Exp Med Biol. 2019;1152:31-49. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20301-6_3Orom H, Kiviniemi MT, Shavers VL, Ross L, Underwood W, 3rd.Perceived risk for breast cancer and its relationship to mammography in Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites.J Behav Med.2013;36:466–476. doi:10.1007/s10865-012-9443-zHawley ST, Fagerlin A, Janz NK, Katz SJ.Racial/ethnic disparities in knowledge about risks and benefits of breast cancer treatment: does it matter where you go?Health Serv. Res.2008;43:1366–1387. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00843.xJanz NK, Hawley ST, Mujahid MS, et al.Correlates of worry about recurrence in a multiethnic population-based sample of women with breast cancer. Cancer.2011;117:1827–1836. doi:10.1002/cncr.25740Kim Y, McCarthy AM, Bristol M, Armstrong K.Disparities in contralateral prophylactic mastectomy use among women with early stage breast cancer.NPJ Breast Cancer. 2017;3:2. doi:10.1038/s41523-017-0004-zCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.Health equity in cancer: how racism leads to cancer health disparities.Soni SE, Lee MC, Gwede CK.Disparities in use and access to postmastectomy breast reconstruction among African American women: a targeted review of the literature.Cancer Control.2017;24(4):1073274817729053. doi:10.1177/1073274817729053Connors SK, Goodman MS, Myckatyn T, Margenthaler J, Gehlert S.Racial disparities in breast reconstruction at a comprehensive cancer center.J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2022;9(6):2323-2333. doi:10.1007/s40615-021-01169-3Epstein S, Tran BN, Cohen JB, Lin SJ, Singhal D, Lee BT.Racial disparities in postmastectomy breast reconstruction: national trends in utilization from 2005 to 2014.Cancer. 124(13):2774-2784. doi:10.1002/cncr.31395Vandergrift JL, Niland JC, Theriault RL, et al.Time to adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer in National Comprehensive Cancer Network institutions.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(2):104-112. doi:10.1093/jnci/djs506Wheeler SB, Spencer JC, Pinheiro LC, Carey LA, Olshan AF, Reeder-Hayes KE.Financial impact of breast cancer in Black versus White women.J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(17):1695-1701. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.77.6310Fung J, Vang S, Margolies LR, et al.Developing a culturally and linguistically targeted breast cancer educational program for a multicultural population.J Cancer Educ. 2021;36(2):395-400. doi:10.1007/s13187-019-01643-xSisco M, Du H, Warner JP, Howard MA, Winchester DP, Yao K.Have we expanded the equitable delivery of postmastectomy breast reconstruction in the new millennium? Evidence from the national cancer data base.J Am Coll Surg. 2012;215(5):658-666. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2012.07.008American Cancer Society.Breast reconstruction options.Jewell ML, Bengtson BP, Smither K, Nuti G, Perry T.Physical properties of silicone gel breast implants.Aesthet Surg J. 2019;39(3):264-275. doi:10.1093/asj/sjy103Connors SK, Leal IM, Nitturi V, et al.Empowered choices: African-American women’s breast reconstruction decisions.Am J Health Behav. 2021;45(2):352-370. doi:10.5993/AJHB.45.2.14American Cancer Society.Breast reconstruction options.American Cancer Society.Treating breast cancer.Greenlee H, DuPont-Reyes MJ, Balneaves LG, et al.Clinical practice guidelines on the evidence-based use of integrative therapies during and after breast cancer treatment.CA Cancer J Clin. 67(3):194-232. doi:10.3322/caac.21397Aleshire ME, Adegboyega A, Escontrías OA, Edward J, Hatcher J.Access to care as a barrier to mammography for Black women.Policy Polit Nurs Pract. 2021;22(1):28-40. doi:10.1177/1527154420965537American Cancer Society.Treatment of breast cancer stages I-III.Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Mastectomy.National Cancer Institute.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Pal T, Cragun D, Lewis C, Bonner D, Camperlengo LP, Vadaparampil ST.Disparities in cancer risk management among BRCA carriers across a diverse sample of young Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White breast cancer survivors.J Clin Oncol. 2016;34(18_suppl):LBA1504-LBA1504. doi:10.1200/JCO.2016.34.18_suppl.LBA1504Breastcancer.org.Minority women less likely to have immediate breast reconstruction.Oppong BA, Bhattacharyya O, Li Y, Obeng-Gyasi S, Sheppard VB.Receipt of breast conservation over mastectomy in Black women—does breast cancer subtype matter?.J Natl Med Assoc. 2022;114(3):298-307. doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2022.02.007Fayanju OM, Kraenzle S, Drake BF, Oka M, Goodman MS.Perceived barriers to mammography among underserved women in a Breast Health Center Outreach Program.Am J Surg. 2014;208(3):425-434. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.03.005Gu J, Groot G, Boden C, Busch A, Holtslander L, Lim H.Review of factors influencing women’s choice of mastectomy versus breast conserving therapy in early stage breast cancer: a systematic review.Clin Breast Cancer. 2018;18(4):e539-e554. doi:10.1016/j.clbc.2017.12.013Yedjou CG, Sims JN, Miele L, et al.Health and racial disparity in breast cancer.Adv Exp Med Biol. 2019;1152:31-49. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20301-6_3Orom H, Kiviniemi MT, Shavers VL, Ross L, Underwood W, 3rd.Perceived risk for breast cancer and its relationship to mammography in Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites.J Behav Med.2013;36:466–476. doi:10.1007/s10865-012-9443-zHawley ST, Fagerlin A, Janz NK, Katz SJ.Racial/ethnic disparities in knowledge about risks and benefits of breast cancer treatment: does it matter where you go?Health Serv. Res.2008;43:1366–1387. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00843.xJanz NK, Hawley ST, Mujahid MS, et al.Correlates of worry about recurrence in a multiethnic population-based sample of women with breast cancer. Cancer.2011;117:1827–1836. doi:10.1002/cncr.25740Kim Y, McCarthy AM, Bristol M, Armstrong K.Disparities in contralateral prophylactic mastectomy use among women with early stage breast cancer.NPJ Breast Cancer. 2017;3:2. doi:10.1038/s41523-017-0004-zCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.Health equity in cancer: how racism leads to cancer health disparities.Soni SE, Lee MC, Gwede CK.Disparities in use and access to postmastectomy breast reconstruction among African American women: a targeted review of the literature.Cancer Control.2017;24(4):1073274817729053. doi:10.1177/1073274817729053Connors SK, Goodman MS, Myckatyn T, Margenthaler J, Gehlert S.Racial disparities in breast reconstruction at a comprehensive cancer center.J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2022;9(6):2323-2333. doi:10.1007/s40615-021-01169-3Epstein S, Tran BN, Cohen JB, Lin SJ, Singhal D, Lee BT.Racial disparities in postmastectomy breast reconstruction: national trends in utilization from 2005 to 2014.Cancer. 124(13):2774-2784. doi:10.1002/cncr.31395Vandergrift JL, Niland JC, Theriault RL, et al.Time to adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer in National Comprehensive Cancer Network institutions.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(2):104-112. doi:10.1093/jnci/djs506Wheeler SB, Spencer JC, Pinheiro LC, Carey LA, Olshan AF, Reeder-Hayes KE.Financial impact of breast cancer in Black versus White women.J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(17):1695-1701. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.77.6310Fung J, Vang S, Margolies LR, et al.Developing a culturally and linguistically targeted breast cancer educational program for a multicultural population.J Cancer Educ. 2021;36(2):395-400. doi:10.1007/s13187-019-01643-xSisco M, Du H, Warner JP, Howard MA, Winchester DP, Yao K.Have we expanded the equitable delivery of postmastectomy breast reconstruction in the new millennium? Evidence from the national cancer data base.J Am Coll Surg. 2012;215(5):658-666. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2012.07.008American Cancer Society.Breast reconstruction options.Jewell ML, Bengtson BP, Smither K, Nuti G, Perry T.Physical properties of silicone gel breast implants.Aesthet Surg J. 2019;39(3):264-275. doi:10.1093/asj/sjy103Connors SK, Leal IM, Nitturi V, et al.Empowered choices: African-American women’s breast reconstruction decisions.Am J Health Behav. 2021;45(2):352-370. doi:10.5993/AJHB.45.2.14American Cancer Society.Breast reconstruction options.American Cancer Society.Treating breast cancer.Greenlee H, DuPont-Reyes MJ, Balneaves LG, et al.Clinical practice guidelines on the evidence-based use of integrative therapies during and after breast cancer treatment.CA Cancer J Clin. 67(3):194-232. doi:10.3322/caac.21397Aleshire ME, Adegboyega A, Escontrías OA, Edward J, Hatcher J.Access to care as a barrier to mammography for Black women.Policy Polit Nurs Pract. 2021;22(1):28-40. doi:10.1177/1527154420965537American Cancer Society.Treatment of breast cancer stages I-III.Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Mastectomy.National Cancer Institute.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.
Pal T, Cragun D, Lewis C, Bonner D, Camperlengo LP, Vadaparampil ST.Disparities in cancer risk management among BRCA carriers across a diverse sample of young Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White breast cancer survivors.J Clin Oncol. 2016;34(18_suppl):LBA1504-LBA1504. doi:10.1200/JCO.2016.34.18_suppl.LBA1504
Breastcancer.org.Minority women less likely to have immediate breast reconstruction.
Oppong BA, Bhattacharyya O, Li Y, Obeng-Gyasi S, Sheppard VB.Receipt of breast conservation over mastectomy in Black women—does breast cancer subtype matter?.J Natl Med Assoc. 2022;114(3):298-307. doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2022.02.007
Fayanju OM, Kraenzle S, Drake BF, Oka M, Goodman MS.Perceived barriers to mammography among underserved women in a Breast Health Center Outreach Program.Am J Surg. 2014;208(3):425-434. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.03.005
Gu J, Groot G, Boden C, Busch A, Holtslander L, Lim H.Review of factors influencing women’s choice of mastectomy versus breast conserving therapy in early stage breast cancer: a systematic review.Clin Breast Cancer. 2018;18(4):e539-e554. doi:10.1016/j.clbc.2017.12.013
Yedjou CG, Sims JN, Miele L, et al.Health and racial disparity in breast cancer.Adv Exp Med Biol. 2019;1152:31-49. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20301-6_3
Orom H, Kiviniemi MT, Shavers VL, Ross L, Underwood W, 3rd.Perceived risk for breast cancer and its relationship to mammography in Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites.J Behav Med.2013;36:466–476. doi:10.1007/s10865-012-9443-z
Hawley ST, Fagerlin A, Janz NK, Katz SJ.Racial/ethnic disparities in knowledge about risks and benefits of breast cancer treatment: does it matter where you go?Health Serv. Res.2008;43:1366–1387. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00843.x
Janz NK, Hawley ST, Mujahid MS, et al.Correlates of worry about recurrence in a multiethnic population-based sample of women with breast cancer. Cancer.2011;117:1827–1836. doi:10.1002/cncr.25740
Kim Y, McCarthy AM, Bristol M, Armstrong K.Disparities in contralateral prophylactic mastectomy use among women with early stage breast cancer.NPJ Breast Cancer. 2017;3:2. doi:10.1038/s41523-017-0004-z
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Health equity in cancer: how racism leads to cancer health disparities.
Soni SE, Lee MC, Gwede CK.Disparities in use and access to postmastectomy breast reconstruction among African American women: a targeted review of the literature.Cancer Control.2017;24(4):1073274817729053. doi:10.1177/1073274817729053
Connors SK, Goodman MS, Myckatyn T, Margenthaler J, Gehlert S.Racial disparities in breast reconstruction at a comprehensive cancer center.J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2022;9(6):2323-2333. doi:10.1007/s40615-021-01169-3
Epstein S, Tran BN, Cohen JB, Lin SJ, Singhal D, Lee BT.Racial disparities in postmastectomy breast reconstruction: national trends in utilization from 2005 to 2014.Cancer. 124(13):2774-2784. doi:10.1002/cncr.31395
Vandergrift JL, Niland JC, Theriault RL, et al.Time to adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer in National Comprehensive Cancer Network institutions.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(2):104-112. doi:10.1093/jnci/djs506
Wheeler SB, Spencer JC, Pinheiro LC, Carey LA, Olshan AF, Reeder-Hayes KE.Financial impact of breast cancer in Black versus White women.J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(17):1695-1701. doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.77.6310
Fung J, Vang S, Margolies LR, et al.Developing a culturally and linguistically targeted breast cancer educational program for a multicultural population.J Cancer Educ. 2021;36(2):395-400. doi:10.1007/s13187-019-01643-x
Sisco M, Du H, Warner JP, Howard MA, Winchester DP, Yao K.Have we expanded the equitable delivery of postmastectomy breast reconstruction in the new millennium? Evidence from the national cancer data base.J Am Coll Surg. 2012;215(5):658-666. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2012.07.008
American Cancer Society.Breast reconstruction options.
Jewell ML, Bengtson BP, Smither K, Nuti G, Perry T.Physical properties of silicone gel breast implants.Aesthet Surg J. 2019;39(3):264-275. doi:10.1093/asj/sjy103
Connors SK, Leal IM, Nitturi V, et al.Empowered choices: African-American women’s breast reconstruction decisions.Am J Health Behav. 2021;45(2):352-370. doi:10.5993/AJHB.45.2.14
American Cancer Society.Treating breast cancer.
Greenlee H, DuPont-Reyes MJ, Balneaves LG, et al.Clinical practice guidelines on the evidence-based use of integrative therapies during and after breast cancer treatment.CA Cancer J Clin. 67(3):194-232. doi:10.3322/caac.21397
Aleshire ME, Adegboyega A, Escontrías OA, Edward J, Hatcher J.Access to care as a barrier to mammography for Black women.Policy Polit Nurs Pract. 2021;22(1):28-40. doi:10.1177/1527154420965537
American Cancer Society.Treatment of breast cancer stages I-III.
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.Mastectomy.
National Cancer Institute.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.
Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health.Breast reconstruction after mastectomy.
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