Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsHow They WorkSecond GenerationFirst GenerationInjectablesWarningsEffectivenessAlternatives
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
How They Work
Second Generation
First Generation
Injectables
Warnings
Effectiveness
Alternatives
The first line of pharmacological treatment forschizophreniais antipsychotic medication.However, antipsychotic medications are ineffective in more than 30% of people with the disorder. This is referred to as treatment-resistant schizophrenia.
Medications to treat schizophrenia come in three forms:
This article discusses the three types of antipsychotic medications to treat schizophrenia, including how they work and side effects they may cause.
Dean Mitchell / Getty Images
For people with schizophrenia, antipsychotic medications can help treatpsychosis symptomslike hallucinations and delusions, which are at the core of the disorder.
Unfortunately, antipsychotics are not effective for treating other common symptoms of schizophrenia, like social withdrawal, or cognitive problems that involve learning and attention.
While antipsychotics do not cure schizophrenia, they help control symptoms and, when taken long-term, can help prevent future episodes ofpsychosis.
With the exception of long-acting injectables, antipsychotic medication is usually taken in pill form, but some are available in dissolving tablets, suppositories, or liquid form.
Antipsychotics should be started as soon as possible after symptoms appear.
Second-Generation Antipsychotics
Second-generation antipsychotics (sometimes called atypical antipsychotics) are the first treatment choice for most professionals treating schizophrenia.
In addition to blocking dopamine, second-generation antipsychotics also affect another brain chemical calledserotonin.
Second-Generation Antipsychotics vs. First-Generation AntipsychoticsWhile second-generation and first-generation antipsychotics work about equally well, second-generation antipsychotics tend to have milder movement-related side effects than first-generation antipsychotics.
Second-Generation Antipsychotics vs. First-Generation Antipsychotics
While second-generation and first-generation antipsychotics work about equally well, second-generation antipsychotics tend to have milder movement-related side effects than first-generation antipsychotics.
Types
Types of second-generation antipsychotics include:
Clorazil (clozapine) is a second-generation antipsychotic, but it is typically only used when other antipsychotics are ineffective or when a person has suicidal ideation. It has an increased risk of lowered white blood cells, so people taking Clorazil will usually have their white blood cell count monitored.
Side Effects
Side effects for second-generation antipsychotics include:
First-Generation Antipsychotics
First-generation antipsychotics (sometimes called typical antipsychotics) are older medications, which were first developed during the 1950s.
While they can work well, they carry a higher risk of side effects, including a serious long-term side effect,tardive dyskinesia(TD), aninvoluntary movement disorderin which people may experience random movements in their muscles, eyes, tongue, jaw, and lips.
For this reason, first-generation antipsychotics are usually only prescribed when second-generation antipsychotics have not been effective or cannot be used.
Types of first-generation antipsychotics include:
Side effects of first-generation antipsychotics vary depending on the drug, but can include:
Long-Acting Injectable Antipsychotics
Long-acting injectable antipsychotics are an option for people who struggle with taking pills or sticking to a regular medication schedule.
These medications can help reduce:
Some injectables require oral supplementation initially when treatment begins. Also, some injectables need to be refrigerated.
The long-acting injectable antipsychotics include:
Side effects for long-acting injectable antipsychotics may include:
Although rare, long-acting injectable antipsychotics are associated with a risk of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. This life-threatening condition may begin with a high fever, and changes in heart or breathing patterns. If you have these symptoms, see a healthcare provider right away.
How Long Does It Take for Medication to Work?Antipsychotic medication can work within a few days to help a person with acute psychosis calm down and clear confusion, but for full effect, it can take up to four to six weeks.
How Long Does It Take for Medication to Work?
Antipsychotic medication can work within a few days to help a person with acute psychosis calm down and clear confusion, but for full effect, it can take up to four to six weeks.
Precautions and Contraindications
In addition to side effects, there are some things that affect the use of antipsychotics.
Other Medications
Some medications can cause side effects when taken with antipsychotics, while others, like antacids, can affect absorption.To limit the risk of any adverse effects, it’s important to let your healthcare provider know all the medications you are taking.
Smoking
Smoking can make the body break down antipsychotics faster. People who smoke heavily may require more medication.
Tell your healthcare provider if the amount you smoke changes.
Coffee
Coffee can slow down how long it takes the body to break down antipsychotics.Tell your healthcare provider if the amount of coffee you drink changes.
Alcohol
Antipsychotics can increase the effects of alcohol, making one drink have the effects of two or three drinks.
Therefore, it’s important to limit alcohol while taking such medications. If you’re struggling with alcohol misuse, let your healthcare provider know, as there are resources available to help.
Street/Illicit Drugs
Drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, and amphetamines can cause symptoms to reoccur or worsen. They can also interfere with medication and worsen side effects.
Driving
For some people, antipsychotics can cause sleepiness or sedation. It is best to avoid driving—or anything else that requires alertness—until you know how the medication affects you.
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
Antipsychotics may cause irregular periods and/or false pregnancy tests.
These risks and side-effects are often manageable and may be a better choice than living with unmedicated schizophrenia/psychosis.
People who are or are planning to be pregnant or breastfeeding should discuss the benefits versus risks with their care provider.
Age
Age can play a role in the use of antipsychotics.
Children and teensare more likely to experience side effects from these medications, as are people older than 60.
People older than 60 may also be more sensitive to the medication and require lower doses. Older adults are more likely to be taking other medications, which may cause interactions with antipsychotics. Antipsychotics may also create a higher risk of falls.
Antipsychotic use in older adults has been associated with an increased risk of stroke, and should only be used if other treatments are not an option.
Diet
Some antipsychotics come in forms that contain substances known to affect people withallergies or dietary restrictions, such as:
Tell your healthcare provider if you have any allergies at all, not just medication allergies.
Talk to Your Healthcare ProviderIt is important to be honest with your healthcare provider about any medications or substances you are taking. This includes:Prescribed medicationOver-the-counter (OTC) medicationsVitaminsHerbal/natural supplementsSmokingAlcoholStreet/illicit drugs
Talk to Your Healthcare Provider
It is important to be honest with your healthcare provider about any medications or substances you are taking. This includes:Prescribed medicationOver-the-counter (OTC) medicationsVitaminsHerbal/natural supplementsSmokingAlcoholStreet/illicit drugs
It is important to be honest with your healthcare provider about any medications or substances you are taking. This includes:
The effectiveness of antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia depends on a number of factors and varies among people.
The most effective treatment for schizophrenia is a multidisciplinary approach including:
People with schizophrenia who are taking antipsychotics report a higher quality of life than those who are not but also experience side effects. For those who report symptom relief and manageable side effects, longer-term maintenance therapy using antipsychotics is suggested.
While it may take months for antipsychotics to reach maximum effect, how a person responds within the first few weeks is considered highly predictive of how they will respond long-term.
It takes at least four weeks at a therapeutic dose to determine the effectiveness of a treatment, and unless a person is experiencing an unmanageable adverse reaction or side effects, healthcare providers usually give a trial of four weeks or longer before suggesting a different medication or treatment.
Sometimes a combination of medications is used to treat schizophrenia.
Treatment for schizophrenia works best when started as early as possible and is approached as a team effort between the person with schizophrenia, medical and therapeutic specialists, and support people.
Adherence to treatment (including taking medication as prescribed) can be difficult for people with schizophrenia. It is important to work with your healthcare provider to find strategies for treatments that work for you and ways to make them successful.
Other Treatments for Schizophrenia
In people whose psychosis symptoms do not respond to antipsychotics, non-pharmacologic therapies like talk therapy can help manage symptoms.Adjunctive (additional) therapies are also beneficial for people using antipsychotics to enhance their treatment or address concurrent problems.
Adjunctive treatments for schizophrenia include the following:
Antidepressant medicationsare prescribed to treat “negative symptoms” (loss of feeling or behaviors) such as social withdrawal, poverty of speech (alogia), and inability to experience joy (anhedonia). Commonly prescribed antidepressants includeselective serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants.
Mood stabilizersare medications prescribed to people with schizophrenia to reduce mood swings, aggression, or agitation. Some types of mood stabilizers, likelithium, reduce the risk of suicide.
Cognitive behavioral therapy(CBT) is a form of talk therapy that helps manage “positive symptoms” (those abnormally present) such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech. It is also effective for treating common concurrent disorders, like depression, anxiety, and substance abuse.
Family interventionsare effective tools for preventing relapses of psychosis. Sessions may involve educating patients and family members about schizophrenia, finding ways to improve communication and problem-solving skills, and ultimately lowering family stress.
Social skill traininghelps people with schizophrenia develop skills needed to operate in society. Sessions may cover such skills as conversing with people, making friends and dating, interacting with healthcare providers, or dealing with social situations that involve drugs or alcohol.
Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT) involves sending electronic signals to a person’s brain through electrodes placed on their head. The person is sedated with general anesthesia throughout the procedure. ECT aims to reduce the chances of relapse, particularly in people who do not respond to drug treatments. It is also an effective treatment for catatonia (a group of symptoms involving lack of movement and communication).
Hospitalizationmay be needed during a severe psychotic episode, or if they show signs of wanting to hurt themselves or others. They may also be hospitalized if they have severe side effects from a medication, or other problems related to substance abuse.
Summary
Antipsychotic medications are the first-line treatment for people with schizophrenia, although they are not effective in 30% of people with the disorder. These drugs can reduce delusions, hallucinations, and other symptoms of psychosis, but other therapies, like talk therapy, ECT, or antidepressant medications may be needed to address co-occurring symptoms.
Antipsychotics are linked to numerous side effects, like drowsiness, dry mouth, and potentially serious side effects like tardive dyskinesia. To reduce the risk of side effects, your healthcare provider may ask you to make some lifestyle changes, like avoiding alcohol, caffeine, and cigarettes.
Understanding Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
25 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Patel KR, Cherian J, Gohil K, Atkinson D.Schizophrenia: overview and treatment options.P T. 2014;39(9):638-645.Northwestern.Antipsychotic drugs work differently than scientists believed.Stępnicki P, Kondej M, Kaczor A.Current concepts and treatments of schizophrenia.Molecules. 2018 Aug;23(8):2087. doi:10.3390/molecules23082087Wunderink L.Personalizing antipsychotic treatment: evidence and thoughts on individualized tailoring of antipsychotic dosage in the treatment of psychotic disorders.Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2019 Apr;9(1):2045125319836566. doi:10.1177/2045125319836566Fernández-Miranda J, Díaz-Fernández S, López-Muñoz F.The use of second-generation antipsychotics in patients with severe schizophrenia in the real world: The role of the route of administration and dosage—a 5-year follow up.Biomedicines.2022 Dec;11(1):42. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11010042Grajales D, Ferreira V, Valverde Á.Second-generation antipsychotics and dysregulation of glucose metabolism: Beyond weight gain.Cells. 2019;8(11):1336. doi:10.3390/cells8111336Paribello P, Manchia M, Zedda M, Pinna F, Carpiniello B.Leukocytosis associated with clozapine treatment: A case series and systematic review of the literature.Medicine (Kaunas). 2021 Aug;57(8):816. doi:10.3390/medicina57080816The Centre For Addiction and Mental Health.Antipsychotic medication.Mount Sinai.Schizophrenia.Edinoff A, Wu N, deBoisblanc C.Lumateperone for the treatment of schizophrenia.Psychopharmacol Bull. 2020 Sep;50(4):32-59.Kishimoto T, Sanghani S, Russ M, et al.Indications for and use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics: consideration from an inpatient setting.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2017 May;32(3):161-168. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000165Zolezzi M, Abouelhassan R, Eltorki Y, Haddad P, Norrizadeh M.Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: A systematic review of their non-systemic adverse effect profile.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021 Jun;17(1):1917-1926. doi:10.2147/NDT.S309768Kaiser Permanente.Long-acting injectable antipsychotic medications.Yartsev A, Peisah C.Caffeine-clozapine interaction associated with severe toxicity and multiorgan system failure: a case report.BMC Psychiatr. 2021 Apr;21(1):192. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03199-xCheng C.Interaction between psychotropic medications and alcohol: Perceptions among patients attending an adult mental health day hospital program.Can J Hosp Pharm. 2018 Feb;71(1):7-13.American Family Physician.Schizophrenia.Long Y, Wu Q, Yang Y.Early non-response as a predictor of later non-response to antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a randomized trial.BMC Med. 2023 Jul;21(1):263. doi:10.1186/s12916-023-02968-7Kane J, Agid O, Baldwin M, et al.Clinical guidance on the identification and management of treatment-resistant schizophrenia.J Clin Psychiatr. 2019 Mar;80(2):18com12123. doi:10.4088/JCP.18com12123Cerveri G, Gesi C, Mencacci C.Pharmacological treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: Update and proposal of a clinical algorithm.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019 Jun;15(1):1525–1535. doi:10.2147/NDT.S201726Puranen A, Koponen M, Lähteenvuo M, Tanskanen A, Tiihonen J, Taipale H.Real-world effectiveness of mood stabilizer use in schizophrenia.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2023 Mar;147(3):257-266. doi:10.1111/acps.13498Kart A, Özdel K, Türkçapar M.Cognitive behavioral therapy in treatment of schizophrenia.Noro Pscyhiatr Ars. 2021 Sep;58(1):61-65. doi:10.29399/npa.27418Hahlweg K, Baucom DH.Family therapy for persons with schizophrenia: neglected yet important.Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci.2023;273(1):819–824. doi:10.1007/s00406-022-01393-wBrowne J, Mueser K, Pratt S.Social skills training for persons with schizophrenia. In:Social Skills Across the Lifespan.2020;1(1):329-342. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-817752-5.00017-2Grover S, Sahoo S, Rabha A, Koirala R.ECT in schizophrenia: a review of evidence.ACTA Neuropsychiatr. 2019 Jun;31(3):115-127. doi:10.1017/neu.2018.32Kaiser Permanente.Schizophrenia: When hospital care is needed.
25 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Patel KR, Cherian J, Gohil K, Atkinson D.Schizophrenia: overview and treatment options.P T. 2014;39(9):638-645.Northwestern.Antipsychotic drugs work differently than scientists believed.Stępnicki P, Kondej M, Kaczor A.Current concepts and treatments of schizophrenia.Molecules. 2018 Aug;23(8):2087. doi:10.3390/molecules23082087Wunderink L.Personalizing antipsychotic treatment: evidence and thoughts on individualized tailoring of antipsychotic dosage in the treatment of psychotic disorders.Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2019 Apr;9(1):2045125319836566. doi:10.1177/2045125319836566Fernández-Miranda J, Díaz-Fernández S, López-Muñoz F.The use of second-generation antipsychotics in patients with severe schizophrenia in the real world: The role of the route of administration and dosage—a 5-year follow up.Biomedicines.2022 Dec;11(1):42. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11010042Grajales D, Ferreira V, Valverde Á.Second-generation antipsychotics and dysregulation of glucose metabolism: Beyond weight gain.Cells. 2019;8(11):1336. doi:10.3390/cells8111336Paribello P, Manchia M, Zedda M, Pinna F, Carpiniello B.Leukocytosis associated with clozapine treatment: A case series and systematic review of the literature.Medicine (Kaunas). 2021 Aug;57(8):816. doi:10.3390/medicina57080816The Centre For Addiction and Mental Health.Antipsychotic medication.Mount Sinai.Schizophrenia.Edinoff A, Wu N, deBoisblanc C.Lumateperone for the treatment of schizophrenia.Psychopharmacol Bull. 2020 Sep;50(4):32-59.Kishimoto T, Sanghani S, Russ M, et al.Indications for and use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics: consideration from an inpatient setting.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2017 May;32(3):161-168. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000165Zolezzi M, Abouelhassan R, Eltorki Y, Haddad P, Norrizadeh M.Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: A systematic review of their non-systemic adverse effect profile.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021 Jun;17(1):1917-1926. doi:10.2147/NDT.S309768Kaiser Permanente.Long-acting injectable antipsychotic medications.Yartsev A, Peisah C.Caffeine-clozapine interaction associated with severe toxicity and multiorgan system failure: a case report.BMC Psychiatr. 2021 Apr;21(1):192. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03199-xCheng C.Interaction between psychotropic medications and alcohol: Perceptions among patients attending an adult mental health day hospital program.Can J Hosp Pharm. 2018 Feb;71(1):7-13.American Family Physician.Schizophrenia.Long Y, Wu Q, Yang Y.Early non-response as a predictor of later non-response to antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a randomized trial.BMC Med. 2023 Jul;21(1):263. doi:10.1186/s12916-023-02968-7Kane J, Agid O, Baldwin M, et al.Clinical guidance on the identification and management of treatment-resistant schizophrenia.J Clin Psychiatr. 2019 Mar;80(2):18com12123. doi:10.4088/JCP.18com12123Cerveri G, Gesi C, Mencacci C.Pharmacological treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: Update and proposal of a clinical algorithm.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019 Jun;15(1):1525–1535. doi:10.2147/NDT.S201726Puranen A, Koponen M, Lähteenvuo M, Tanskanen A, Tiihonen J, Taipale H.Real-world effectiveness of mood stabilizer use in schizophrenia.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2023 Mar;147(3):257-266. doi:10.1111/acps.13498Kart A, Özdel K, Türkçapar M.Cognitive behavioral therapy in treatment of schizophrenia.Noro Pscyhiatr Ars. 2021 Sep;58(1):61-65. doi:10.29399/npa.27418Hahlweg K, Baucom DH.Family therapy for persons with schizophrenia: neglected yet important.Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci.2023;273(1):819–824. doi:10.1007/s00406-022-01393-wBrowne J, Mueser K, Pratt S.Social skills training for persons with schizophrenia. In:Social Skills Across the Lifespan.2020;1(1):329-342. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-817752-5.00017-2Grover S, Sahoo S, Rabha A, Koirala R.ECT in schizophrenia: a review of evidence.ACTA Neuropsychiatr. 2019 Jun;31(3):115-127. doi:10.1017/neu.2018.32Kaiser Permanente.Schizophrenia: When hospital care is needed.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Patel KR, Cherian J, Gohil K, Atkinson D.Schizophrenia: overview and treatment options.P T. 2014;39(9):638-645.Northwestern.Antipsychotic drugs work differently than scientists believed.Stępnicki P, Kondej M, Kaczor A.Current concepts and treatments of schizophrenia.Molecules. 2018 Aug;23(8):2087. doi:10.3390/molecules23082087Wunderink L.Personalizing antipsychotic treatment: evidence and thoughts on individualized tailoring of antipsychotic dosage in the treatment of psychotic disorders.Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2019 Apr;9(1):2045125319836566. doi:10.1177/2045125319836566Fernández-Miranda J, Díaz-Fernández S, López-Muñoz F.The use of second-generation antipsychotics in patients with severe schizophrenia in the real world: The role of the route of administration and dosage—a 5-year follow up.Biomedicines.2022 Dec;11(1):42. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11010042Grajales D, Ferreira V, Valverde Á.Second-generation antipsychotics and dysregulation of glucose metabolism: Beyond weight gain.Cells. 2019;8(11):1336. doi:10.3390/cells8111336Paribello P, Manchia M, Zedda M, Pinna F, Carpiniello B.Leukocytosis associated with clozapine treatment: A case series and systematic review of the literature.Medicine (Kaunas). 2021 Aug;57(8):816. doi:10.3390/medicina57080816The Centre For Addiction and Mental Health.Antipsychotic medication.Mount Sinai.Schizophrenia.Edinoff A, Wu N, deBoisblanc C.Lumateperone for the treatment of schizophrenia.Psychopharmacol Bull. 2020 Sep;50(4):32-59.Kishimoto T, Sanghani S, Russ M, et al.Indications for and use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics: consideration from an inpatient setting.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2017 May;32(3):161-168. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000165Zolezzi M, Abouelhassan R, Eltorki Y, Haddad P, Norrizadeh M.Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: A systematic review of their non-systemic adverse effect profile.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021 Jun;17(1):1917-1926. doi:10.2147/NDT.S309768Kaiser Permanente.Long-acting injectable antipsychotic medications.Yartsev A, Peisah C.Caffeine-clozapine interaction associated with severe toxicity and multiorgan system failure: a case report.BMC Psychiatr. 2021 Apr;21(1):192. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03199-xCheng C.Interaction between psychotropic medications and alcohol: Perceptions among patients attending an adult mental health day hospital program.Can J Hosp Pharm. 2018 Feb;71(1):7-13.American Family Physician.Schizophrenia.Long Y, Wu Q, Yang Y.Early non-response as a predictor of later non-response to antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a randomized trial.BMC Med. 2023 Jul;21(1):263. doi:10.1186/s12916-023-02968-7Kane J, Agid O, Baldwin M, et al.Clinical guidance on the identification and management of treatment-resistant schizophrenia.J Clin Psychiatr. 2019 Mar;80(2):18com12123. doi:10.4088/JCP.18com12123Cerveri G, Gesi C, Mencacci C.Pharmacological treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: Update and proposal of a clinical algorithm.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019 Jun;15(1):1525–1535. doi:10.2147/NDT.S201726Puranen A, Koponen M, Lähteenvuo M, Tanskanen A, Tiihonen J, Taipale H.Real-world effectiveness of mood stabilizer use in schizophrenia.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2023 Mar;147(3):257-266. doi:10.1111/acps.13498Kart A, Özdel K, Türkçapar M.Cognitive behavioral therapy in treatment of schizophrenia.Noro Pscyhiatr Ars. 2021 Sep;58(1):61-65. doi:10.29399/npa.27418Hahlweg K, Baucom DH.Family therapy for persons with schizophrenia: neglected yet important.Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci.2023;273(1):819–824. doi:10.1007/s00406-022-01393-wBrowne J, Mueser K, Pratt S.Social skills training for persons with schizophrenia. In:Social Skills Across the Lifespan.2020;1(1):329-342. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-817752-5.00017-2Grover S, Sahoo S, Rabha A, Koirala R.ECT in schizophrenia: a review of evidence.ACTA Neuropsychiatr. 2019 Jun;31(3):115-127. doi:10.1017/neu.2018.32Kaiser Permanente.Schizophrenia: When hospital care is needed.
Patel KR, Cherian J, Gohil K, Atkinson D.Schizophrenia: overview and treatment options.P T. 2014;39(9):638-645.
Northwestern.Antipsychotic drugs work differently than scientists believed.
Stępnicki P, Kondej M, Kaczor A.Current concepts and treatments of schizophrenia.Molecules. 2018 Aug;23(8):2087. doi:10.3390/molecules23082087
Wunderink L.Personalizing antipsychotic treatment: evidence and thoughts on individualized tailoring of antipsychotic dosage in the treatment of psychotic disorders.Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2019 Apr;9(1):2045125319836566. doi:10.1177/2045125319836566
Fernández-Miranda J, Díaz-Fernández S, López-Muñoz F.The use of second-generation antipsychotics in patients with severe schizophrenia in the real world: The role of the route of administration and dosage—a 5-year follow up.Biomedicines.2022 Dec;11(1):42. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11010042
Grajales D, Ferreira V, Valverde Á.Second-generation antipsychotics and dysregulation of glucose metabolism: Beyond weight gain.Cells. 2019;8(11):1336. doi:10.3390/cells8111336
Paribello P, Manchia M, Zedda M, Pinna F, Carpiniello B.Leukocytosis associated with clozapine treatment: A case series and systematic review of the literature.Medicine (Kaunas). 2021 Aug;57(8):816. doi:10.3390/medicina57080816
The Centre For Addiction and Mental Health.Antipsychotic medication.
Mount Sinai.Schizophrenia.
Edinoff A, Wu N, deBoisblanc C.Lumateperone for the treatment of schizophrenia.Psychopharmacol Bull. 2020 Sep;50(4):32-59.
Kishimoto T, Sanghani S, Russ M, et al.Indications for and use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics: consideration from an inpatient setting.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2017 May;32(3):161-168. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000165
Zolezzi M, Abouelhassan R, Eltorki Y, Haddad P, Norrizadeh M.Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: A systematic review of their non-systemic adverse effect profile.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2021 Jun;17(1):1917-1926. doi:10.2147/NDT.S309768
Kaiser Permanente.Long-acting injectable antipsychotic medications.
Yartsev A, Peisah C.Caffeine-clozapine interaction associated with severe toxicity and multiorgan system failure: a case report.BMC Psychiatr. 2021 Apr;21(1):192. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03199-x
Cheng C.Interaction between psychotropic medications and alcohol: Perceptions among patients attending an adult mental health day hospital program.Can J Hosp Pharm. 2018 Feb;71(1):7-13.
American Family Physician.Schizophrenia.
Long Y, Wu Q, Yang Y.Early non-response as a predictor of later non-response to antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a randomized trial.BMC Med. 2023 Jul;21(1):263. doi:10.1186/s12916-023-02968-7
Kane J, Agid O, Baldwin M, et al.Clinical guidance on the identification and management of treatment-resistant schizophrenia.J Clin Psychiatr. 2019 Mar;80(2):18com12123. doi:10.4088/JCP.18com12123
Cerveri G, Gesi C, Mencacci C.Pharmacological treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: Update and proposal of a clinical algorithm.Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2019 Jun;15(1):1525–1535. doi:10.2147/NDT.S201726
Puranen A, Koponen M, Lähteenvuo M, Tanskanen A, Tiihonen J, Taipale H.Real-world effectiveness of mood stabilizer use in schizophrenia.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2023 Mar;147(3):257-266. doi:10.1111/acps.13498
Kart A, Özdel K, Türkçapar M.Cognitive behavioral therapy in treatment of schizophrenia.Noro Pscyhiatr Ars. 2021 Sep;58(1):61-65. doi:10.29399/npa.27418
Hahlweg K, Baucom DH.Family therapy for persons with schizophrenia: neglected yet important.Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci.2023;273(1):819–824. doi:10.1007/s00406-022-01393-w
Browne J, Mueser K, Pratt S.Social skills training for persons with schizophrenia. In:Social Skills Across the Lifespan.2020;1(1):329-342. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-817752-5.00017-2
Grover S, Sahoo S, Rabha A, Koirala R.ECT in schizophrenia: a review of evidence.ACTA Neuropsychiatr. 2019 Jun;31(3):115-127. doi:10.1017/neu.2018.32
Kaiser Permanente.Schizophrenia: When hospital care is needed.
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