Thepenisis a complex organ comprised of a network of specialized nerves, muscles, vessels, and tissues that work in coordination to facilitate urination, erection, andejaculation.
Thomas Barwick / Getty Images
Specialists in diseases of the urinary tract and male reproductive organs, calledurologists, are typically called upon to diagnose and treat conditions affecting the penis. These include conditions affecting sexual function.
Peyronie’s Disease
Symptoms of PD include:
Some level oferectile dysfunction (ED)is common in people with Peyronie’s disease, although not everyone will experience this. Others may experience ED initially but see it gradually improve over time.
PD can occur at any age, although it primarily affects those between the ages of 45 and 60. Race is not a factor.
The exact cause of PD is unknown, but it is believed to be the result of a buildup of plaque on the inner lining of the penis due to repeated sexual trauma or injury. Over time, plaques on the tunica albuginea (the sheath covering the spongy columns of tissue that fill with blood inside the penis) can suddenly “give way” and cause the abnormal bend.
There are no sure-fire remedies for PD. Vitamin E supplementation, other oral or topical medications, medical injection therapy,penile traction, and physical therapy have all been used to varying degrees of success.
Exercises for Peyronie’s Disease
For people with severe penile deformity, a surgery called theNesbit proceduremay be used as a last resort. Excision and grafting is another surgical technique that may be performed. These surgical procedures are considered after trial of medical therapy options, also including intralesional verapamil (an alternative to Xiaflex, not FDA-approved).Penile implantsmay also be used to enhance sexual function.
Penile Cancer
Penile canceris a relatively rare form of cancer affecting the penis. It is diagnosed in fewer than one of every 100,000 people with penises in the United States, or roughly 2,000 cases per year.
Around 95% of penile cancer cases involvesquamous cell carcinoma, the type of cancer that affects cells on the outer layer of skin as well as those lining hollow organs.MelanomaandMerkel cell carcinomaare less common causes.
Risk factors of penile cancer includehuman papillomavirus (HPV) infection,HIV infection, phimosis (the inability to retract the foreskin), and being over the age of 50. Smoking is also a risk factor.
Penile cancer is definitely diagnosed with abiopsy. Depending on thestage and gradeof cancer, treatment may involve surgery,radiation therapy,chemotherapy, orbiological drugs.
Urethral Defects
Theurethrais the tube through which urine is channeled from thebladderand exits the body. In people with penises, the urethra runs through the length of the penis and ends at the tip of the glans. In addition to passing urine, the urethra is the vessel through whichsemenis ejaculated during sex.
There are two congenital disorders that cause the malformation of the penile urethra:
Hypospadias
Hypospadias is a birth defect in which the opening of the urethra is on the underside of the penis instead of at the tip.
Hypospadias affects around one of every 250 male births and not only affects the appearance of the penis but can lead to abnormal spraying during urination and problems with ejaculation. Hypospadias can also cause a characteristic downward curve of the penis (called chordee).
Hypospadias can be treated surgically, although this is generally delayed until the age of consent unless the defect is causing severe problems.
Epispadias
Epispadiasis a birth defect in which the urethra does not fully form, causing urine to exit from an abnormal place in the body. In people with penises, the opening will often be on the top or side of the penis, or even along the entire length of the penis.
Epispadias is a far more rare and serious defect than hypospadias, affecting one of every 100,000 male births. In addition to urethral deformity, epispadias will often manifest with an abnormally small penis and an abnormally formed bladder neck.
Epispadias is rarely left untreated as it can lead to serious complications, includingurinary incontinence, recurrentkidney infections(due tourinary reflux),kidneyorureterdamage, and infertility.
Reconstructive surgery is key to normalizing urinary and sexual function. Urethral reconstruction can start as early as 6 months of age with additional procedures scheduled later in life to repair malformations of the bladder neck, pelvis, and adjacent structures.
Bladder Exstrophy: From Diagnosis to Repair
Foreskin Problems
The foreskin, also known as the prepuce, is a double-layered fold of tissue and skin that covers the glans of the penis. It is traversed with tiny blood vessels and nerves and contains mucous membranes that can keep the glans moist and lubricated.
There are three conditions affecting the foreskin that urologists commonly treat:
Phimosis
When it occurs in adults, phimosis can cause aggravating and potentially severe symptoms, some of which can worsen over time. These include:
When it occurs during adulthood, phimosis is often the result of an infection or inflammatory condition such as balanitis (see below) orlichen sclerosis(a chronic inflammatory skin disorder). On the flip side, phimosis cancausebalanitis.
Treatment options includetopical steroid creamsto reduce inflammation and make retraction easier. Manual stretching exercises can gradually increase the opening of the foreskin (often with the aid of a tubular device called a “flesh tube” that keeps the skin stretched).Circumcisionis an option if all else fails.
Causes of Penile Pain During Intercourse
Paraphimosis
Paraphimosisis the inability to return a retracted foreskin back to its original position over the head of the penis. While it is often regarded as a “cousin” to phimosis, paraphimosis is arguably more severe as it can restrict blood flow, causing the glans to become swollen and dark purplish in color.
This is a urological emergency. If the foreskin cannot be returned to its normal position, the blockage of blood flow can causeedema(tissue swelling), tissue death, andgangrene.It can be manually reduced. Otherwise, dorsal slit or circumcision may be required.
Paraphimosis most commonly occurs when a healthcare professional forgets to pull the foreskin back to its normal position after a medical exam or a patient does not place it back in normal position after cleaning. Penile infections and physical trauma to the penis can also lead to paraphimosis.
Paraphimosis that causes any sign of blood flow obstruction—or continues for several hours even without symptoms—should be regarded as a medical emergency.
6 Urological Conditions That Are Medical Emergencies
Balanitis
Balanitisis the inflammation of the head of the penis. When the foreskin is involved, it is referred to as balanoposthitis. Balanitis and balanoposthitis occur primarily in people withuncircumcised penises.
Balanitis is most common in people over 40 but can also affect children, albeit uncommonly. Poor hygiene, chemical irritants (such as detergents and lubricants),morbid obesity,reactive arthritis, anddiabetesare all known risk factors.
Symptoms of balanitis/balanoposthitis include:
Balanitis is most commonly addressed with improved hygiene but may also involve treatment withtopical antibioticsortopical antifungals. In some cases, oral antibiotics for people with recurrent or severe balanoposthitis,circumcisionmay be recommended.
Circumcision: Everything You Need To Know
Sexual Problems
There are conditions that can affect the sexual function of the penis, including the ability to achieve an erection, orgasm, or ejaculation. The penis is also vulnerable to infections acquired during sex, some of which can be serious.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Because the penis is largely external, people often believe that it is easier to detect signs of a sexually transmitted infection. This is not always the case. With somesexually transmitted infections (STIs), there may be no notable symptoms, or the signs may be mistaken for other medical conditions.
Among STIs commonly seen in people with penises:
The consistentuse of condomsand a reduction in the number of sex partners can go a long way toward preventing many sexually transmitted infections.
Ejaculation Dysfunction
Ejaculation is the discharge of semen as the result of anorgasm. Ejaculatory problems are among the most common form of sexual dysfunction in people with penises and can affect individuals of all ages.
Ejaculation problems are broadly classified into four groups:
Because ejaculation problems often have psychological, physiological, and medical components, the treatment may require the input of a psychologist or psychiatrist as well as a urologist.
Psychological Treatments for Ejaculation Problems
Erectile Dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction (ED)is defined as the inability to achieve and sustain an erection firm enough for sexual intercourse. Also known as impotence, ED is a condition thought to affect 1 in 10 people with penises, with 43% experiencing some level of ED at some point in their life.
There are numerous intersecting causes of ED, including:
Patients presenting with ED without a history of cardiac problems should have a baseline cardiac workup starting with their primary care physician.
ED is typically treated with medications calledphosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitorsthat cause the dilation of blood vessels and the relaxation of smooth muscles of the penis. They including Cialis (tadalafil), Levitra (vardenafil), Stendra (avanafil), andViagra (sildenafil).
Other treatment options include Caverject (alprostadil injection), Muse (alprostadil suppository), vacuum erectile devices, andpenis pumps or implants.Testosterone replacement therapycan further augment most types of treatment for ED.
Studies have also found that moderate to vigorous aerobicexerciseperformed four times weekly for 40 minutes can significantly improve erectile dysfunction.
What Is Erectile Dysfunction?
A Word From Verywell
People will sometimes delay seeing a urologist out of the sheer embarrassment of having to discuss things like erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, or symptoms involving the penis or foreskin.
Even though certain urological conditions are relatively common, it is important not to ignore them. This is especially true if there are sudden changes in sexual or urinary function, or you notice changes in the appearance, color, texture, or size of the penis or foreskin.
In some cases, an investigation may reveal a more serious underlying condition that can be treated or controlled. Early diagnosis and treatment almost invariably afford better outcomes than holding off.
What to Know About Telehealth With a Urologist
28 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Al-Thakafi S, Al-Hathal N.Peyronie’s disease: a literature review on epidemiology, genetics, pathophysiology, diagnosis and work-up.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(3):280-9. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.04.05Sandean DP, Lotfollahzadeh.Peyronie disease. In:StatPearls[Internet].Endo Pharmaceuticals.Package insert - Xiaflex (collagenase clostridium histolyticum) for injection.Gelbard M, Goldstein I, Hellstrom WJ, McMahon CG, Smith T, Tursi J, Jones N, Kaufman GJ, Carson CC 3rd.Clinical efficacy, safety and tolerability of collagenase clostridium histolyticum for the treatment of peyronie disease in 2 large double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled phase 3 studies.J Urol. 2013 Jul;190(1):199-207. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2013.01.087Nehra A, Alterowitz R, Culkin DJ, et al.Peyronie’s disease: AUA guideline.J Urol. 2015;194(3):745-753. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2015.05.098American Cancer Society.Key statistics for penile cancer.Engelsgjerd JS, LaGrange CA.Penile cancer. In:StatPearls[Internet].American Cancer Society.Signs and symptoms of penile cancer.American Cancer Society.Survival rates for penile cancer.Van der Horst HJR, de Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5Anand S, Lotfollahzadeh S.Epispadias. In:StatPearls[Internet].Inouye BM, Tourchi A, Di Carlo HN, Young EE, Gearheart JP.Modern management of the exstrophy-epispadias complex.Surg Res Pract.2014;2014:587064. doi:10.1155/2014/587064McPhee AS, Stormont G, McKay AC.Phimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Hayashi Y, Kojima Y, Mizuno K, Kohri K.Prepuce: phimosis, paraphimosis, and circumcision.Scientific World J. 2011;11:289-301. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.31Bragg BN, Kong EL, Leslie SW.Paraphimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Palmisano F, Gadda F, Spinelli M, Montanaria E.Glans penis necrosis following paraphimosis: a rare case with brief literature review.Urol Case Rep. 2018 Jan;16:57-8. doi:10.1016/j.eucr.2017.09.016Pandya I, Shinojia M, Vadukul D, Marfatia YS.Approach to balanitis/balanoposthitis: current guidelines.Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS. Jul-Dec 2014;35(2):155-7. doi:10.4103/0253-7184.142415Wray AA, Velasquez J, Khetarpal S.Balanitis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Workowski KA, Bolan GA.Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015.MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015 Jun 5;64(RR-03):1-137.Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Classification and definition of premature ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):416-23. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.16Chen J.The pathophysiology of delayed ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):549-62. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.03Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Retrograde ejaculation, painful ejaculation and hematospermia.Transl Androl Urol.2016 Aug;5(4):592-601. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.06.05Otani T.Clinical review of ejaculatory dysfunction.Reprod Med Biol.2019 Oct;18(4):331-43. doi:10.1002/rmb2.12289Pastuszak AW.Current diagnosis and management of erectile dysfunction.Curr Sex Health Rep. 2014;6(3):164-76. doi:10.1007/s11930-014-0023-9DeLay KJ, Haney N, Hellstrom WJG.Modifying risk factors in the management of erectile dysfunction: a review.World J Mens Health. 2016 Aug;34(2):89-100. doi:10.5534/wjmh.2016.34.2.89Cayan S, Kendirci M, Yaman O.Prevalence of erectile dysfunction in men over 40 years of age in Turkey: results from the Turkish Society of Andrology Male Sexual Health Study Group.Turk J Urol.2017 Jun; 43(2): 122-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2017.24886Burnett AL, Nehra A, Breau RH, Culkin DJ, Faraday MM, Hakim LS, Heidelbaugh J, Khera M, McVary KT, Miner MM, Nelson CJ, Sadeghi-Nejad H, Seftel AD, Shindel AW.Erectile dysfunction: AUA Guideline.J Urol. 2018 Sep;200(3):633-641. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2018.05.004Gerbild H, Larsen CM, Graugaard C, Josefsson KA.Physical activity to improve erectile function: a systematic review of intervention studies.Sex Med. 2018 Jun;6(2):75-89. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2018.02.001
28 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Al-Thakafi S, Al-Hathal N.Peyronie’s disease: a literature review on epidemiology, genetics, pathophysiology, diagnosis and work-up.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(3):280-9. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.04.05Sandean DP, Lotfollahzadeh.Peyronie disease. In:StatPearls[Internet].Endo Pharmaceuticals.Package insert - Xiaflex (collagenase clostridium histolyticum) for injection.Gelbard M, Goldstein I, Hellstrom WJ, McMahon CG, Smith T, Tursi J, Jones N, Kaufman GJ, Carson CC 3rd.Clinical efficacy, safety and tolerability of collagenase clostridium histolyticum for the treatment of peyronie disease in 2 large double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled phase 3 studies.J Urol. 2013 Jul;190(1):199-207. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2013.01.087Nehra A, Alterowitz R, Culkin DJ, et al.Peyronie’s disease: AUA guideline.J Urol. 2015;194(3):745-753. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2015.05.098American Cancer Society.Key statistics for penile cancer.Engelsgjerd JS, LaGrange CA.Penile cancer. In:StatPearls[Internet].American Cancer Society.Signs and symptoms of penile cancer.American Cancer Society.Survival rates for penile cancer.Van der Horst HJR, de Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5Anand S, Lotfollahzadeh S.Epispadias. In:StatPearls[Internet].Inouye BM, Tourchi A, Di Carlo HN, Young EE, Gearheart JP.Modern management of the exstrophy-epispadias complex.Surg Res Pract.2014;2014:587064. doi:10.1155/2014/587064McPhee AS, Stormont G, McKay AC.Phimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Hayashi Y, Kojima Y, Mizuno K, Kohri K.Prepuce: phimosis, paraphimosis, and circumcision.Scientific World J. 2011;11:289-301. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.31Bragg BN, Kong EL, Leslie SW.Paraphimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Palmisano F, Gadda F, Spinelli M, Montanaria E.Glans penis necrosis following paraphimosis: a rare case with brief literature review.Urol Case Rep. 2018 Jan;16:57-8. doi:10.1016/j.eucr.2017.09.016Pandya I, Shinojia M, Vadukul D, Marfatia YS.Approach to balanitis/balanoposthitis: current guidelines.Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS. Jul-Dec 2014;35(2):155-7. doi:10.4103/0253-7184.142415Wray AA, Velasquez J, Khetarpal S.Balanitis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Workowski KA, Bolan GA.Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015.MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015 Jun 5;64(RR-03):1-137.Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Classification and definition of premature ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):416-23. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.16Chen J.The pathophysiology of delayed ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):549-62. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.03Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Retrograde ejaculation, painful ejaculation and hematospermia.Transl Androl Urol.2016 Aug;5(4):592-601. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.06.05Otani T.Clinical review of ejaculatory dysfunction.Reprod Med Biol.2019 Oct;18(4):331-43. doi:10.1002/rmb2.12289Pastuszak AW.Current diagnosis and management of erectile dysfunction.Curr Sex Health Rep. 2014;6(3):164-76. doi:10.1007/s11930-014-0023-9DeLay KJ, Haney N, Hellstrom WJG.Modifying risk factors in the management of erectile dysfunction: a review.World J Mens Health. 2016 Aug;34(2):89-100. doi:10.5534/wjmh.2016.34.2.89Cayan S, Kendirci M, Yaman O.Prevalence of erectile dysfunction in men over 40 years of age in Turkey: results from the Turkish Society of Andrology Male Sexual Health Study Group.Turk J Urol.2017 Jun; 43(2): 122-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2017.24886Burnett AL, Nehra A, Breau RH, Culkin DJ, Faraday MM, Hakim LS, Heidelbaugh J, Khera M, McVary KT, Miner MM, Nelson CJ, Sadeghi-Nejad H, Seftel AD, Shindel AW.Erectile dysfunction: AUA Guideline.J Urol. 2018 Sep;200(3):633-641. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2018.05.004Gerbild H, Larsen CM, Graugaard C, Josefsson KA.Physical activity to improve erectile function: a systematic review of intervention studies.Sex Med. 2018 Jun;6(2):75-89. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2018.02.001
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Al-Thakafi S, Al-Hathal N.Peyronie’s disease: a literature review on epidemiology, genetics, pathophysiology, diagnosis and work-up.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(3):280-9. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.04.05Sandean DP, Lotfollahzadeh.Peyronie disease. In:StatPearls[Internet].Endo Pharmaceuticals.Package insert - Xiaflex (collagenase clostridium histolyticum) for injection.Gelbard M, Goldstein I, Hellstrom WJ, McMahon CG, Smith T, Tursi J, Jones N, Kaufman GJ, Carson CC 3rd.Clinical efficacy, safety and tolerability of collagenase clostridium histolyticum for the treatment of peyronie disease in 2 large double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled phase 3 studies.J Urol. 2013 Jul;190(1):199-207. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2013.01.087Nehra A, Alterowitz R, Culkin DJ, et al.Peyronie’s disease: AUA guideline.J Urol. 2015;194(3):745-753. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2015.05.098American Cancer Society.Key statistics for penile cancer.Engelsgjerd JS, LaGrange CA.Penile cancer. In:StatPearls[Internet].American Cancer Society.Signs and symptoms of penile cancer.American Cancer Society.Survival rates for penile cancer.Van der Horst HJR, de Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5Anand S, Lotfollahzadeh S.Epispadias. In:StatPearls[Internet].Inouye BM, Tourchi A, Di Carlo HN, Young EE, Gearheart JP.Modern management of the exstrophy-epispadias complex.Surg Res Pract.2014;2014:587064. doi:10.1155/2014/587064McPhee AS, Stormont G, McKay AC.Phimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Hayashi Y, Kojima Y, Mizuno K, Kohri K.Prepuce: phimosis, paraphimosis, and circumcision.Scientific World J. 2011;11:289-301. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.31Bragg BN, Kong EL, Leslie SW.Paraphimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Palmisano F, Gadda F, Spinelli M, Montanaria E.Glans penis necrosis following paraphimosis: a rare case with brief literature review.Urol Case Rep. 2018 Jan;16:57-8. doi:10.1016/j.eucr.2017.09.016Pandya I, Shinojia M, Vadukul D, Marfatia YS.Approach to balanitis/balanoposthitis: current guidelines.Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS. Jul-Dec 2014;35(2):155-7. doi:10.4103/0253-7184.142415Wray AA, Velasquez J, Khetarpal S.Balanitis. In:StatPearls[Internet].Workowski KA, Bolan GA.Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015.MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015 Jun 5;64(RR-03):1-137.Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Classification and definition of premature ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):416-23. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.16Chen J.The pathophysiology of delayed ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):549-62. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.03Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Retrograde ejaculation, painful ejaculation and hematospermia.Transl Androl Urol.2016 Aug;5(4):592-601. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.06.05Otani T.Clinical review of ejaculatory dysfunction.Reprod Med Biol.2019 Oct;18(4):331-43. doi:10.1002/rmb2.12289Pastuszak AW.Current diagnosis and management of erectile dysfunction.Curr Sex Health Rep. 2014;6(3):164-76. doi:10.1007/s11930-014-0023-9DeLay KJ, Haney N, Hellstrom WJG.Modifying risk factors in the management of erectile dysfunction: a review.World J Mens Health. 2016 Aug;34(2):89-100. doi:10.5534/wjmh.2016.34.2.89Cayan S, Kendirci M, Yaman O.Prevalence of erectile dysfunction in men over 40 years of age in Turkey: results from the Turkish Society of Andrology Male Sexual Health Study Group.Turk J Urol.2017 Jun; 43(2): 122-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2017.24886Burnett AL, Nehra A, Breau RH, Culkin DJ, Faraday MM, Hakim LS, Heidelbaugh J, Khera M, McVary KT, Miner MM, Nelson CJ, Sadeghi-Nejad H, Seftel AD, Shindel AW.Erectile dysfunction: AUA Guideline.J Urol. 2018 Sep;200(3):633-641. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2018.05.004Gerbild H, Larsen CM, Graugaard C, Josefsson KA.Physical activity to improve erectile function: a systematic review of intervention studies.Sex Med. 2018 Jun;6(2):75-89. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2018.02.001
Al-Thakafi S, Al-Hathal N.Peyronie’s disease: a literature review on epidemiology, genetics, pathophysiology, diagnosis and work-up.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(3):280-9. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.04.05
Sandean DP, Lotfollahzadeh.Peyronie disease. In:StatPearls[Internet].
Endo Pharmaceuticals.Package insert - Xiaflex (collagenase clostridium histolyticum) for injection.
Gelbard M, Goldstein I, Hellstrom WJ, McMahon CG, Smith T, Tursi J, Jones N, Kaufman GJ, Carson CC 3rd.Clinical efficacy, safety and tolerability of collagenase clostridium histolyticum for the treatment of peyronie disease in 2 large double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled phase 3 studies.J Urol. 2013 Jul;190(1):199-207. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2013.01.087
Nehra A, Alterowitz R, Culkin DJ, et al.Peyronie’s disease: AUA guideline.J Urol. 2015;194(3):745-753. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2015.05.098
American Cancer Society.Key statistics for penile cancer.
Engelsgjerd JS, LaGrange CA.Penile cancer. In:StatPearls[Internet].
American Cancer Society.Signs and symptoms of penile cancer.
American Cancer Society.Survival rates for penile cancer.
Van der Horst HJR, de Wall LL.Hypospadias, all there is to know.Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):435-41. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-2864-5
Anand S, Lotfollahzadeh S.Epispadias. In:StatPearls[Internet].
Inouye BM, Tourchi A, Di Carlo HN, Young EE, Gearheart JP.Modern management of the exstrophy-epispadias complex.Surg Res Pract.2014;2014:587064. doi:10.1155/2014/587064
McPhee AS, Stormont G, McKay AC.Phimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].
Hayashi Y, Kojima Y, Mizuno K, Kohri K.Prepuce: phimosis, paraphimosis, and circumcision.Scientific World J. 2011;11:289-301. doi:10.1100/tsw.2011.31
Bragg BN, Kong EL, Leslie SW.Paraphimosis. In:StatPearls[Internet].
Palmisano F, Gadda F, Spinelli M, Montanaria E.Glans penis necrosis following paraphimosis: a rare case with brief literature review.Urol Case Rep. 2018 Jan;16:57-8. doi:10.1016/j.eucr.2017.09.016
Pandya I, Shinojia M, Vadukul D, Marfatia YS.Approach to balanitis/balanoposthitis: current guidelines.Indian J Sex Transm Dis AIDS. Jul-Dec 2014;35(2):155-7. doi:10.4103/0253-7184.142415
Wray AA, Velasquez J, Khetarpal S.Balanitis. In:StatPearls[Internet].
Workowski KA, Bolan GA.Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015.MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015 Jun 5;64(RR-03):1-137.
Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Classification and definition of premature ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):416-23. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.16
Chen J.The pathophysiology of delayed ejaculation.Transl Androl Urol. 2016;5(4):549-62. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.05.03
Parnham A, Serefoglu EC.Retrograde ejaculation, painful ejaculation and hematospermia.Transl Androl Urol.2016 Aug;5(4):592-601. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.06.05
Otani T.Clinical review of ejaculatory dysfunction.Reprod Med Biol.2019 Oct;18(4):331-43. doi:10.1002/rmb2.12289
Pastuszak AW.Current diagnosis and management of erectile dysfunction.Curr Sex Health Rep. 2014;6(3):164-76. doi:10.1007/s11930-014-0023-9
DeLay KJ, Haney N, Hellstrom WJG.Modifying risk factors in the management of erectile dysfunction: a review.World J Mens Health. 2016 Aug;34(2):89-100. doi:10.5534/wjmh.2016.34.2.89
Cayan S, Kendirci M, Yaman O.Prevalence of erectile dysfunction in men over 40 years of age in Turkey: results from the Turkish Society of Andrology Male Sexual Health Study Group.Turk J Urol.2017 Jun; 43(2): 122-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2017.24886
Burnett AL, Nehra A, Breau RH, Culkin DJ, Faraday MM, Hakim LS, Heidelbaugh J, Khera M, McVary KT, Miner MM, Nelson CJ, Sadeghi-Nejad H, Seftel AD, Shindel AW.Erectile dysfunction: AUA Guideline.J Urol. 2018 Sep;200(3):633-641. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2018.05.004
Gerbild H, Larsen CM, Graugaard C, Josefsson KA.Physical activity to improve erectile function: a systematic review of intervention studies.Sex Med. 2018 Jun;6(2):75-89. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2018.02.001
Meet Our Medical Expert Board
Share Feedback
Was this page helpful?Thanks for your feedback!What is your feedback?OtherHelpfulReport an ErrorSubmit
Was this page helpful?
Thanks for your feedback!
What is your feedback?OtherHelpfulReport an ErrorSubmit
What is your feedback?
