Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsStage 1: Acute HIV InfectionStage 2: Chronic HIV InfectionAIDS-Defining IllnessesHIV-Associated CancersDiagnosisTreatmentPrevention
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Stage 1: Acute HIV Infection
Stage 2: Chronic HIV Infection
AIDS-Defining Illnesses
HIV-Associated Cancers
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)is the viral infection that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), of the estimated 1.2 million Americans living with HIV, just over 912,000 are male.
While thesymptoms of HIVare largely the same for both males or females, signs of HIV that affect males includeerectile dysfunction, penile ulcers, and breast tissue growth. Other HIV symptoms include fever, swollen lymph nodes and rashes.
The article describes why symptoms like these occur in males with HIV, including how they differ during theacute and chronicphases of infection. It also explains howsexually transmitted infections (STIs)that commonly occur with HIV can also trigger distinctive symptoms in males.
A Note on Gender and Sex TerminologyVerywell Health acknowledges thatsex and gender are related concepts, but they are not the same.Sex refers to biology: chromosomal makeup, hormones, and anatomy. People are most often assigned male or female at birth based on their external anatomy; some people do not fit into that sex binary and are intersex.Gender describes a person’s internal sense of self as a woman, man, nonbinary person, or another gender, and the associated social and cultural ideas about the roles, behaviors, expressions, and characteristics.Research studies sometimes don’t use the terminology in this way. Terms that describe gender (“woman,” “man”) may be used when terms for sex (“female,” “male”) are more appropriate. To reflect our sources accurately, this article uses terms like “female,” “male,” “woman,” and “man” as the sources use them.
A Note on Gender and Sex Terminology
Verywell Health acknowledges thatsex and gender are related concepts, but they are not the same.Sex refers to biology: chromosomal makeup, hormones, and anatomy. People are most often assigned male or female at birth based on their external anatomy; some people do not fit into that sex binary and are intersex.Gender describes a person’s internal sense of self as a woman, man, nonbinary person, or another gender, and the associated social and cultural ideas about the roles, behaviors, expressions, and characteristics.Research studies sometimes don’t use the terminology in this way. Terms that describe gender (“woman,” “man”) may be used when terms for sex (“female,” “male”) are more appropriate. To reflect our sources accurately, this article uses terms like “female,” “male,” “woman,” and “man” as the sources use them.
Verywell Health acknowledges thatsex and gender are related concepts, but they are not the same.
Research studies sometimes don’t use the terminology in this way. Terms that describe gender (“woman,” “man”) may be used when terms for sex (“female,” “male”) are more appropriate. To reflect our sources accurately, this article uses terms like “female,” “male,” “woman,” and “man” as the sources use them.
Acute HIV infection, also known as acute seroconversion oracute retroviral syndrome (ARS), is the initial stage of the disease following exposure to the virus. It is the period during which the body will start producingantibodiesto fight the virus. ARS lasts for about 14 days, but the antibodies may be made for much longer.
Some people will experience flu-like symptoms about two to four weeks after infection. They also may experience the following symptoms:
Not all of the early signs and symptoms of HIV infection vary between men and women, nor do all people have the same symptoms. Some studies suggest up to 43% of people have no early symptoms at all.
Early Signs and Symptoms of HIV
What Early HIV Symptoms Are Specific to Men?
Another way that acute HIV differs in men is in the types of symptoms that can develop when there is an accompanyingsexually transmitted infection (STI). Symptoms to watch for include:
A 2018 study from the San Francisco Department of Public Health reported thatsyphilis,gonorrhea, andchlamydiawere diagnosed respectively in 66%, 28%, and 15% of people newly diagnosed with HIV.
Among some of the symptoms commonly seen in men with anHIV/STI co-infection:
Although the above-listed symptoms are not signs of HIV, they are indicative of an increased risk of HIV. To this end, the CDC recommend that anyone who seeks thediagnosisandtreatmentof an STI should be screened for HIV as well.
Causes and Risk Factors of STIs
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After theimmune systemproduces enough antibodies to bring the acute infection under control, HIV will go into a period of latency when there may be few, if any, notable symptoms.
This chronic stage of infection can persist for years, during which HIV will silently and progressively deplete the number of CD4 T-cells that are part of the body’s immune response.
As these immune cells are depleted, the body will become increasingly susceptible to an ever-widening range of opportunistic infections (OIs). These are infections that the body would otherwise be able to control had its immune defenses remained intact.
A normal CD4 count ranges from 500 to 1,200 cells per cubic millimeter (cells/mm3) in adults and teens. A value between 250 and 500 cells/mm3is considered criteria for diagnosis ofimmunosuppression.
11 Signs of HIV to Know
Opportunistic Infections in Men
As opposed to the acute stage of infection, the symptoms of chronic HIV are primarily related to the development of opportunistic infection rather than the virus itself.
In men and women, the expression of these OIs remains more or less the same. Common OIs include:
The differences between sexes, if any, mainly involve those of the anal and genital tracts. In men with chronic HIV infection, these symptoms may include:
Uncommon Signs and Symptoms of HIV
Stage 3: AIDS
The final stage of HIV infection is commonly referred to as acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). This is the point where the immune system is said to be severely compromised, increasing the risk of potentially life-threatening opportunistic infections.
By definition, a person with HIV is considered to have progressed to AIDS when:
AIDS-defining conditions include OIs that are rarely seen outside ofimmunocompromised peopleas well as common OIs that have recurred or have disseminated (spread) beyond the typical site of infection to distant organs.
If left untreated, HIV can progress to AIDS over the course of months to years, with a median time of approximately 11 years.
Does HIV Always Progress to AIDS?
Symptoms of AIDS in Men
The symptoms of AIDS are similar for men and women. HSV-2-associated anal ulcers, which can become deep and non-healing with CD4 counts under 100, predominantly affects men.
Kaposi sarcoma (KS), an AIDS-defining cancer, can occur on any part of the body but, on rare occasions, can manifest with purplish lesions on the penis.Although KS typically occurs when the CD4 count drops below 200, there have been instances when an isolated penile lesion has developed at CD4 counts well over 200.
Non-AIDS-Defining Cancers
In men, this can lead to an increased risk of two different types of cancer:
How Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Is Treated
How Is HIV Diagnosed in Males?
A healthcare provider will recommend testing for HIV, especially if you are a member of a high-risk group including MSM. Common HIV tests include:
What Tests Can Diagnose HIV?
How Is HIV Treated in Males?
HIV is treated withantiretroviral medicationused to manage but not cure the disease. The FDA has approved 10 different types of HIV treatment as well as combination drugs. They include:
Additional treatments are used to manage co-occurring conditions, such as antifungals to treat thrush or testosterone replacement for hypogonadism.
How Is HIV Prevented?
If you’re at risk of HIV infection, get tested often. Talk with your healthcare provider about the kinds of tests that may be best for you and/or your partner. Currently, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends at least one timeHIV testingfor all Americans ages 15 to 65 as part of a routine medical exam.
HIV Statistics You Should Know
Summary
Many of the signs and symptoms of HIV infection are common among all people, even though some people don’t experience early symptoms at all. Males and females do have some specific symptoms that affect them due to reasons including differences in anatomy.
Males may experience erectile dysfunction, low testosterone levels that lead to breast tissue growth, and other symptoms. If you haverisk factors for HIVand have not been tested, it may be time to do so.
If diagnosed and treated appropriately, men living with HIV can live normal to near-normal life expectancy with a lowered risk of HIV-associated illnesses. Early diagnosis and treatment almost invariably lead to better outcomes.
How HIV Is Treated
28 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fast facts: HIV and gay and bisexual men.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About HIV.Hoenigl M, Green N, Camacho M, et al.Signs or symptoms of acute HIV infection in a cohort undergoing community-based screening.Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(3):532-4. doi:10.3201/eid2203.151607Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Men who have sex with men.Seng R, Goujard C, Krastinova E, et al.Influence of lifelong cumulative HIV viremia on the long-term recovery of CD4+ count and CD4+/CD8+ ratio among patients on combination antiretroviral therapy.AIDS. 2015;29(5):595-607. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000000571Chen MJ, Scheer S, Nguyen TQ, Kohn KP, Schwarcz SK.HIV coinfection among persons diagnosed as having sexually transmitted diseases, San Francisco, 2007 to 2014.Sex Transm Dis.2018;45(8):563-72. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000789Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Blank S, Shepard C.The high risk of an HIV diagnosis following a diagnosis of syphilis: A population-level analysis of New York City men.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(2):281-7. doi:10.1093/cid/civ289Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV infection: detection, counseling, and referral.National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.CD4 lymphocyte count.Chepkondol GK, Jolly PE, Yatich N, Mbowe O, Jaoko WG.Types and prevalence of HIV-related opportunistic infections/conditions among HIV-positive patients attending Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya.Afr Health Sci. 2020;20(2):615-624. doi:10.4314/ahs.v20i2.9Kieselova K, Santiago F, Falhas C,et al.Chronic penile ulcer as the first manifestation of HIV infection.BMJ Case Reports.2017;2017:bcr-2017-221604. doi:10.1136/bcr-2017-221604Ye Y, Burkholder GA, Wiener H, Aslibekyan S, Khan AE, Shrestha S.HSV-infection-related herpetic anogenital ulcer disease among PLWH in southeastern US: electronic medical record based analysis.Sex Transm Infect. 2022;98(1):44-49. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2020-054503Coelho R, Ribeiro T, Abreu N, Gonçalves R, Macedo G.Infectious proctitis: what every gastroenterologist needs to know.Ann Gastroenterol. 2023;36(3):275-286. doi:10.20524/aog.2023.0799Chirca N, Streinu-Cercel A, Stefan M, Aurelian J, Persu C.A novel risk calculator to predict erectile dysfunction in HIV-positive men.J Pers Med. 2023;13(4):679. doi:10.3390/jpm13040679Wong N, Levy M, Stephenson I.Hypogonadism in the HIV-Infected Man.Curr Treat Options Infect Dis. 2017;9(1):104-116. doi:10.1007/s40506-017-0110-3Department of Health and Human Services.What Are HIV and AIDS?.Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents With HIV: herpes simplex virus.Tammam A, Abdulrahman A, Ebrahim M, et al.Penile Kaposi sarcoma as an initial manifestation of HIV infection: A case report and literature review.IDCases. 2022;29:e01576. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01576Konan PB, Vodi CC, Dekou AH, Fofana A, Gowe EE, Manzan K.Cancer of the penis associated with HIV: a report of three cases presenting at the CHU Cocody, Ivory Coast.BMC Urol.2015;15:112. doi:10.1186/s12894-015-0101-yNational Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program.Cancer stat facts: anal cancer.Patel P, Bush T, Kojic EM, et al.Prevalence, incidence, and clearance of anal high-risk human papillomavirus infection among HIV-infected men in the SUN study.J Infect Dis.2018;217(6):953-963. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix607Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV testing.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.FDA approved HIV tests.National Institutes of Health Office of AIDS Research.FDA-approved HIV medicines.Johnson DW O’Leary A, Flore SA.Per-partner condom effectiveness against HIV for men who have sex with men.AIDS.2018;32(11):1499-1505. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000001832KFF.Sterile needle exchange program, 2022.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Preventing HIV with PrEP.U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.Final recommendation statement: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: screening.
28 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fast facts: HIV and gay and bisexual men.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About HIV.Hoenigl M, Green N, Camacho M, et al.Signs or symptoms of acute HIV infection in a cohort undergoing community-based screening.Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(3):532-4. doi:10.3201/eid2203.151607Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Men who have sex with men.Seng R, Goujard C, Krastinova E, et al.Influence of lifelong cumulative HIV viremia on the long-term recovery of CD4+ count and CD4+/CD8+ ratio among patients on combination antiretroviral therapy.AIDS. 2015;29(5):595-607. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000000571Chen MJ, Scheer S, Nguyen TQ, Kohn KP, Schwarcz SK.HIV coinfection among persons diagnosed as having sexually transmitted diseases, San Francisco, 2007 to 2014.Sex Transm Dis.2018;45(8):563-72. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000789Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Blank S, Shepard C.The high risk of an HIV diagnosis following a diagnosis of syphilis: A population-level analysis of New York City men.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(2):281-7. doi:10.1093/cid/civ289Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV infection: detection, counseling, and referral.National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.CD4 lymphocyte count.Chepkondol GK, Jolly PE, Yatich N, Mbowe O, Jaoko WG.Types and prevalence of HIV-related opportunistic infections/conditions among HIV-positive patients attending Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya.Afr Health Sci. 2020;20(2):615-624. doi:10.4314/ahs.v20i2.9Kieselova K, Santiago F, Falhas C,et al.Chronic penile ulcer as the first manifestation of HIV infection.BMJ Case Reports.2017;2017:bcr-2017-221604. doi:10.1136/bcr-2017-221604Ye Y, Burkholder GA, Wiener H, Aslibekyan S, Khan AE, Shrestha S.HSV-infection-related herpetic anogenital ulcer disease among PLWH in southeastern US: electronic medical record based analysis.Sex Transm Infect. 2022;98(1):44-49. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2020-054503Coelho R, Ribeiro T, Abreu N, Gonçalves R, Macedo G.Infectious proctitis: what every gastroenterologist needs to know.Ann Gastroenterol. 2023;36(3):275-286. doi:10.20524/aog.2023.0799Chirca N, Streinu-Cercel A, Stefan M, Aurelian J, Persu C.A novel risk calculator to predict erectile dysfunction in HIV-positive men.J Pers Med. 2023;13(4):679. doi:10.3390/jpm13040679Wong N, Levy M, Stephenson I.Hypogonadism in the HIV-Infected Man.Curr Treat Options Infect Dis. 2017;9(1):104-116. doi:10.1007/s40506-017-0110-3Department of Health and Human Services.What Are HIV and AIDS?.Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents With HIV: herpes simplex virus.Tammam A, Abdulrahman A, Ebrahim M, et al.Penile Kaposi sarcoma as an initial manifestation of HIV infection: A case report and literature review.IDCases. 2022;29:e01576. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01576Konan PB, Vodi CC, Dekou AH, Fofana A, Gowe EE, Manzan K.Cancer of the penis associated with HIV: a report of three cases presenting at the CHU Cocody, Ivory Coast.BMC Urol.2015;15:112. doi:10.1186/s12894-015-0101-yNational Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program.Cancer stat facts: anal cancer.Patel P, Bush T, Kojic EM, et al.Prevalence, incidence, and clearance of anal high-risk human papillomavirus infection among HIV-infected men in the SUN study.J Infect Dis.2018;217(6):953-963. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix607Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV testing.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.FDA approved HIV tests.National Institutes of Health Office of AIDS Research.FDA-approved HIV medicines.Johnson DW O’Leary A, Flore SA.Per-partner condom effectiveness against HIV for men who have sex with men.AIDS.2018;32(11):1499-1505. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000001832KFF.Sterile needle exchange program, 2022.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Preventing HIV with PrEP.U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.Final recommendation statement: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: screening.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fast facts: HIV and gay and bisexual men.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About HIV.Hoenigl M, Green N, Camacho M, et al.Signs or symptoms of acute HIV infection in a cohort undergoing community-based screening.Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(3):532-4. doi:10.3201/eid2203.151607Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Men who have sex with men.Seng R, Goujard C, Krastinova E, et al.Influence of lifelong cumulative HIV viremia on the long-term recovery of CD4+ count and CD4+/CD8+ ratio among patients on combination antiretroviral therapy.AIDS. 2015;29(5):595-607. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000000571Chen MJ, Scheer S, Nguyen TQ, Kohn KP, Schwarcz SK.HIV coinfection among persons diagnosed as having sexually transmitted diseases, San Francisco, 2007 to 2014.Sex Transm Dis.2018;45(8):563-72. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000789Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Blank S, Shepard C.The high risk of an HIV diagnosis following a diagnosis of syphilis: A population-level analysis of New York City men.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(2):281-7. doi:10.1093/cid/civ289Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV infection: detection, counseling, and referral.National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.CD4 lymphocyte count.Chepkondol GK, Jolly PE, Yatich N, Mbowe O, Jaoko WG.Types and prevalence of HIV-related opportunistic infections/conditions among HIV-positive patients attending Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya.Afr Health Sci. 2020;20(2):615-624. doi:10.4314/ahs.v20i2.9Kieselova K, Santiago F, Falhas C,et al.Chronic penile ulcer as the first manifestation of HIV infection.BMJ Case Reports.2017;2017:bcr-2017-221604. doi:10.1136/bcr-2017-221604Ye Y, Burkholder GA, Wiener H, Aslibekyan S, Khan AE, Shrestha S.HSV-infection-related herpetic anogenital ulcer disease among PLWH in southeastern US: electronic medical record based analysis.Sex Transm Infect. 2022;98(1):44-49. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2020-054503Coelho R, Ribeiro T, Abreu N, Gonçalves R, Macedo G.Infectious proctitis: what every gastroenterologist needs to know.Ann Gastroenterol. 2023;36(3):275-286. doi:10.20524/aog.2023.0799Chirca N, Streinu-Cercel A, Stefan M, Aurelian J, Persu C.A novel risk calculator to predict erectile dysfunction in HIV-positive men.J Pers Med. 2023;13(4):679. doi:10.3390/jpm13040679Wong N, Levy M, Stephenson I.Hypogonadism in the HIV-Infected Man.Curr Treat Options Infect Dis. 2017;9(1):104-116. doi:10.1007/s40506-017-0110-3Department of Health and Human Services.What Are HIV and AIDS?.Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents With HIV: herpes simplex virus.Tammam A, Abdulrahman A, Ebrahim M, et al.Penile Kaposi sarcoma as an initial manifestation of HIV infection: A case report and literature review.IDCases. 2022;29:e01576. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01576Konan PB, Vodi CC, Dekou AH, Fofana A, Gowe EE, Manzan K.Cancer of the penis associated with HIV: a report of three cases presenting at the CHU Cocody, Ivory Coast.BMC Urol.2015;15:112. doi:10.1186/s12894-015-0101-yNational Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program.Cancer stat facts: anal cancer.Patel P, Bush T, Kojic EM, et al.Prevalence, incidence, and clearance of anal high-risk human papillomavirus infection among HIV-infected men in the SUN study.J Infect Dis.2018;217(6):953-963. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix607Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV testing.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.FDA approved HIV tests.National Institutes of Health Office of AIDS Research.FDA-approved HIV medicines.Johnson DW O’Leary A, Flore SA.Per-partner condom effectiveness against HIV for men who have sex with men.AIDS.2018;32(11):1499-1505. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000001832KFF.Sterile needle exchange program, 2022.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Preventing HIV with PrEP.U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.Final recommendation statement: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: screening.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Fast facts: HIV and gay and bisexual men.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.About HIV.
Hoenigl M, Green N, Camacho M, et al.Signs or symptoms of acute HIV infection in a cohort undergoing community-based screening.Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(3):532-4. doi:10.3201/eid2203.151607
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Men who have sex with men.
Seng R, Goujard C, Krastinova E, et al.Influence of lifelong cumulative HIV viremia on the long-term recovery of CD4+ count and CD4+/CD8+ ratio among patients on combination antiretroviral therapy.AIDS. 2015;29(5):595-607. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000000571
Chen MJ, Scheer S, Nguyen TQ, Kohn KP, Schwarcz SK.HIV coinfection among persons diagnosed as having sexually transmitted diseases, San Francisco, 2007 to 2014.Sex Transm Dis.2018;45(8):563-72. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0000000000000789
Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Blank S, Shepard C.The high risk of an HIV diagnosis following a diagnosis of syphilis: A population-level analysis of New York City men.Clin Infect Dis.2015;61(2):281-7. doi:10.1093/cid/civ289
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV infection: detection, counseling, and referral.
National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus.CD4 lymphocyte count.
Chepkondol GK, Jolly PE, Yatich N, Mbowe O, Jaoko WG.Types and prevalence of HIV-related opportunistic infections/conditions among HIV-positive patients attending Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya.Afr Health Sci. 2020;20(2):615-624. doi:10.4314/ahs.v20i2.9
Kieselova K, Santiago F, Falhas C,et al.Chronic penile ulcer as the first manifestation of HIV infection.BMJ Case Reports.2017;2017:bcr-2017-221604. doi:10.1136/bcr-2017-221604
Ye Y, Burkholder GA, Wiener H, Aslibekyan S, Khan AE, Shrestha S.HSV-infection-related herpetic anogenital ulcer disease among PLWH in southeastern US: electronic medical record based analysis.Sex Transm Infect. 2022;98(1):44-49. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2020-054503
Coelho R, Ribeiro T, Abreu N, Gonçalves R, Macedo G.Infectious proctitis: what every gastroenterologist needs to know.Ann Gastroenterol. 2023;36(3):275-286. doi:10.20524/aog.2023.0799
Chirca N, Streinu-Cercel A, Stefan M, Aurelian J, Persu C.A novel risk calculator to predict erectile dysfunction in HIV-positive men.J Pers Med. 2023;13(4):679. doi:10.3390/jpm13040679
Wong N, Levy M, Stephenson I.Hypogonadism in the HIV-Infected Man.Curr Treat Options Infect Dis. 2017;9(1):104-116. doi:10.1007/s40506-017-0110-3
Department of Health and Human Services.What Are HIV and AIDS?.
Department of Health and Human Services.Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents With HIV: herpes simplex virus.
Tammam A, Abdulrahman A, Ebrahim M, et al.Penile Kaposi sarcoma as an initial manifestation of HIV infection: A case report and literature review.IDCases. 2022;29:e01576. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2022.e01576
Konan PB, Vodi CC, Dekou AH, Fofana A, Gowe EE, Manzan K.Cancer of the penis associated with HIV: a report of three cases presenting at the CHU Cocody, Ivory Coast.BMC Urol.2015;15:112. doi:10.1186/s12894-015-0101-y
National Cancer Institute Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program.Cancer stat facts: anal cancer.
Patel P, Bush T, Kojic EM, et al.Prevalence, incidence, and clearance of anal high-risk human papillomavirus infection among HIV-infected men in the SUN study.J Infect Dis.2018;217(6):953-963. doi:10.1093/infdis/jix607
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.HIV testing.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.FDA approved HIV tests.
National Institutes of Health Office of AIDS Research.FDA-approved HIV medicines.
Johnson DW O’Leary A, Flore SA.Per-partner condom effectiveness against HIV for men who have sex with men.AIDS.2018;32(11):1499-1505. doi:10.1097/QAD.0000000000001832
KFF.Sterile needle exchange program, 2022.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Preventing HIV with PrEP.
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force.Final recommendation statement: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: screening.
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