Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsTypesBenefitsProcedurePreparationCostRecoveryRisksLifestyle ChangesSeeking Medical CareNext in Vaginoplasty GuideNeovagina Surgery: Types of Vaginoplasty
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Types
Benefits
Procedure
Preparation
Cost
Recovery
Risks
Lifestyle Changes
Seeking Medical Care
Next in Vaginoplasty Guide
Vaginoplastyis a surgical procedure that repairs or constructs a vagina. Cisgender women and people assigned female at birth may undergo a vaginoplasty to address vaginal injuries from medical conditions like vaginal cancer or conditions present at birth, such as vaginal agenesis (absence of a vagina at birth).
Vaginoplasty is also a gender-affirming surgery for transgender (trans) women and transfeminine people, helping align their physical characteristics with their gender identity. The first recorded vaginoplasty performed on a transgender woman took place in the 1930s, with significant advancements in surgical techniques occurring over recent decades.
Today, it is a well-established and refined gender-affirming procedure that offers a safe and effective way to achieve a functional and natural-appearing vagina.
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Types of Vaginoplasty Procedures
Vaginoplasty encompasses various surgical procedures tailored to meet different medical and personal needs. Vaginoplasty focuses on creating or repairing the structural integrity of thevaginaitself.
Other vaginal plastic surgery procedures—such as labiaplasty (reducing the length of the labia) or monsplasty (reducing the fatty tissue or skin on the hair-bearing part of the vulva)—address the appearance of external genitalia without altering or creating the internal vaginal canal.
Vaginoplasty as Gender Confirmation Surgery
Transfeminine gender confirmation surgery, or feminizing genital surgery, is a cornerstone of gender-affirming care for transgender women and transfeminine people. This procedure creates a functionalneovagina(new vagina) and external genitalia that aligns with a trans woman’s gender identity. While there are many techniques surgeons can perform to create a neovagina, a penile inversion vaginoplasty is the most common.
What Does Vaginoplasty Treat?
In cisgender women, vaginoplasty addresses conditions that affect the vagina’s structure or function, including:
What Are the Benefits of Vaginoplasty?
Vaginoplasty can be a life-changing procedure that offers positive outcomes and improves quality of life. Depending on the reason for undergoing the surgery, the potential benefits of vaginoplasty can include:
The Vaginoplasty Procedure: Techniques and How It Works
There are several vaginoplasty surgical techniques. The type of vaginoplasty you undergo will depend on your anatomy and the desired outcome (gender-affirming or reconstructive).
Vaginoplasty procedures are performed under general anesthesia, ensuring you are completely unconscious and pain-free during the surgery. In some cases, your healthcare provider may place a pudendal nerve block—an injection of corticosteroids and a local anesthetic—at the end of the procedure to ensure you do not feel any pain in your pelvic region during recovery.
Penile inversion andcolovaginoplasty(vaginoplasty with bowel tissue) are the two main surgical approaches for creating a neovagina. While the techniques differ, they produce the same result regarding neovagina appearance and function.
Penile Inversion Procedure
A penile inversion is the most common surgical technique for gender-affirming vaginoplasty. It involves using tissue from thepenisand scrotum to construct a functional neovagina and labia. The surgeon inserts the skin of the penis to form the vaginal lining and sculpts the remaining penile and scrotal tissue into the labia.
Surgeons use various techniques for a penile inversion procedure, but generally, the procedure takes approximately six hours and involves the following steps:
Colovaginoplasty (Bowel Vaginoplasty)
A colovaginoplasty uses tissues from the colon (large intestine) to create a neovagina. This procedure is standard in cisgender women born without a fully developed vagina or when transgender women do not have enough penile tissue for a penile inversion.
The colovaginoplasty procedure is laparoscopic, meaning it involves making small incisions in the abdomen. It takes approximately three hours and involves the following steps:
Preparing for Surgery
Undergoing vaginoplasty is a life-changing decision that requires careful planning and preparation. The initial step to prepare for your surgery is a comprehensive consultation with a qualified plastic surgeon specializing in vaginoplasty. During the consultation, you will discuss:
In some cases, particularly for gender-affirming vaginoplasty, your healthcare provider may recommend a psychological evaluation andcounselingto help address any concerns about the surgery and ensure you’re emotionally prepared for the process.
Physical Preparation
Depending on the specific type of vaginoplasty, your surgeon may recommend certain physical preparations before surgery, such as:
How Much Does a Vaginoplasty Cost?
The cost of vaginoplasty can vary significantly based on several factors, including the type of procedure, the location of the surgery, and insurance coverage. In the United States, the cost of gender-affirming vaginoplasty ranges from $45,000 to $60,000.This includes:
It’s important to discuss financial considerations with your surgeon during the consultation. They can provide an accurate estimate based on your procedure, insurance coverage, and fees.
Insurance Coverage
Most insurance providers in the United States recognizegender-affirming surgeriesas medically necessary for transgender people and provide coverage for the procedure. The extent of coverage can vary widely, depending on your policy.
Most insurance companies require prior authorization and for you to meet specific criteria for the procedure to ensure quality coverage. Many insurance companies follow the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) guidelines to determine who is an eligible candidate for vaginoplasty. WPATH criteria for undergoing the procedure include:
Carefully review your insurance policy and work with your healthcare provider to determine what costs are covered and what you can expect to pay out of pocket, including your deductible, co-pays, and any other expenses your insurance plan does not cover.
Recovery and Aftercare
Vaginoplasty recoverytakes about six weeks and includes a hospital stay, pain management, wound healing, follow-up appointments, and long-term aftercare. Understanding what to expect can help you prepare and navigate your recovery journey. After vaginoplasty, you can expect the following:
Potential Risks and Complications
As with any surgical procedure, vaginoplasty comes with potential risks and complications. Studies report high satisfaction rates following vaginoplasty, significantly improving the quality of life for over 90% of those who undergo the procedure.However, some people may experience complications, including:
Lifestyle Changes After Surgery
For many women who undergo vaginoplasty, the outcome brings a sense of completeness and authenticity, enhancing self-esteem and overall psychological well-being.While most report positive outcomes, it’s important to remember that the journey to emotional and psychological well-being requires time, patience, and support.
The immediate period after surgery can be emotionally challenging as you adapt to your new anatomy. Feelings of relief, happiness, and anxiety are common. Give yourself time to adjust and seek support from mental health professionals, friends, or support groups as needed. Regular counseling sessions can help address any lingering gender dysphoria, body image issues, or other emotional challenges.
Sexual function and intimacy are also important aspects of life, and vaginoplasty brings some significant changes. Consider the following:
When to Contact a Healthcare Provider
After a vaginoplasty, it’s important to watch for any signs of complications. Early intervention can help prevent serious problems and ensure a smooth recovery. Seek immediate care if you experience any of the following symptoms:
Summary
Vaginoplasty is a surgery that constructs or repairs a vagina. For transgender women, it is an empowering, gender-affirming procedure. It is also a reconstructive procedure for cisgender women with vaginal trauma or those with medical and congenital conditions affecting the structure or function of the vagina.
Vaginoplasty offers many benefits, including enhanced quality of life and improved sexual function and body image. Surgeons use various techniques to perform a vaginoplasty, such as penile inversion and bowel vaginoplasty.
Considering vaginoplasty is a profound and personal decision that requires careful thought and professional guidance. Consulting with experienced healthcare providers, including surgeons and mental health professionals, can help you navigate this journey and make informed choices.
Thorough preparation, informed decision-making, and following your postsurgical instructions are essential for a successful vaginoplasty and a fulfilling life after surgery.
30 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.American Urological Association.Vaginal agenesis.The Aesthetic Society.Vaginoplasty.Bertrand B, Perchenet AS, Casanova D.Histoire de la vaginoplastie : évolution technique et sociologique [The history of vaginoplasty: Technical and sociological advances].Ann Chir Plast Esthet. 2023;68(5-6):389-396. doi:10.1016/j.anplas.2023.07.001American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a labiaplasty?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a monsplasty?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is transfeminine bottom surgery?Dural Ö, Poyrazoğlu Ş.Conservative management of vaginal hypoplasia.J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2020;12(Suppl 1):50-52. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.galenos.2020.2019.S0222Lyons ME, Goldman JJ.Vulvar-vaginal reconstruction. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Desai SA, Kroumpouzos G, Sadick N.Vaginal rejuvenation: from scalpel to wands.Int J Womens Dermatol. 2019;5(2):79-84. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2019.02.003Kloer C, Parker A, Blasdel G, et al.Sexual health after vaginoplasty: a systematic review.Andrology. 2021;9(6):1744-1764. doi:10.1111/andr.13022Morrison SD, Claes K, Morris MP, et al.Principles and outcomes of gender-affirming vaginoplasty.Nat Rev Urol. 2023;20(5):308-322. doi:10.1038/s41585-022-00705-yGhanavatian S, Leslie SW, Derian A.Pudendal nerve block. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Huang TCT, Adabi K, Arendt K, et al.Abstract: pudendal nerve blocks for vaginoplasty in gender confirmation surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2018;6(9 Suppl):191-192. doi:10.1097/01.GOX.0000547081.38478.a5GenderAid.Vaginoplasty.Loree JT, Burke MS, Rippe B, Clarke S, Moore SH, Loree TR.Transfeminine gender confirmation surgery with penile inversion vaginoplasty: an initial experience.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2020;8(5):e2873. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002873Salgado CJ, Nugent A, Kuhn J, Janette M, Bahna H.Primary sigmoid vaginoplasty in transwomen: technique and outcomes.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:4907208. doi:10.1155/2018/4907208American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What can I expect during a consultation for transfeminine bottom surgery?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.How should I prepare for transfeminine bottom surgery?Gender Confirmation Center.Everything you need to get bottom surgery.Gender Confirmation Center.Hair removal before bottom surgery.Downing J, Holt SK, Cunetta M, Gore JL, Dy GW.Spending and out-of-pocket costs for genital gender-affirming surgery in the US.JAMA Surg. 2022;157(9):799-806. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2022.2606Baker K, Restar A.Utilization and costs of gender-affirming care in a commercially insured transgender population.J Law Med Ethics. 2022;50(3):456-470. doi:10.1017/jme.2022.87American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is the cost of transfeminine bottom surgery?Cohen WA, Sangalang AM, Dalena MM, Ayyala HS, Keith JD.Navigating insurance policies in the United States for gender-affirming surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7(12):e2564. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002564World Professional Association for Transgender Health.Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people, 7th version.Kaiser Permanente Medical Group.Recovering from vaginoplasty and other feminizing genital surgeries.Bustos SS, Bustos VP, Mascaro A, et al.Complications and patient-reported outcomes in transfemale vaginoplasty: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2021;9(3):e3510. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000003510UCSF Transgender Care.Vaginoplasty procedures, complications, and aftercare.Women’s College Hospital.Vaginoplasty — common complications.Hess J, Henkel A, Bohr J, et al.Sexuality after male-to-female gender affirmation surgery.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:9037979. doi:10.1155/2018/9037979
30 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.American Urological Association.Vaginal agenesis.The Aesthetic Society.Vaginoplasty.Bertrand B, Perchenet AS, Casanova D.Histoire de la vaginoplastie : évolution technique et sociologique [The history of vaginoplasty: Technical and sociological advances].Ann Chir Plast Esthet. 2023;68(5-6):389-396. doi:10.1016/j.anplas.2023.07.001American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a labiaplasty?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a monsplasty?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is transfeminine bottom surgery?Dural Ö, Poyrazoğlu Ş.Conservative management of vaginal hypoplasia.J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2020;12(Suppl 1):50-52. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.galenos.2020.2019.S0222Lyons ME, Goldman JJ.Vulvar-vaginal reconstruction. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Desai SA, Kroumpouzos G, Sadick N.Vaginal rejuvenation: from scalpel to wands.Int J Womens Dermatol. 2019;5(2):79-84. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2019.02.003Kloer C, Parker A, Blasdel G, et al.Sexual health after vaginoplasty: a systematic review.Andrology. 2021;9(6):1744-1764. doi:10.1111/andr.13022Morrison SD, Claes K, Morris MP, et al.Principles and outcomes of gender-affirming vaginoplasty.Nat Rev Urol. 2023;20(5):308-322. doi:10.1038/s41585-022-00705-yGhanavatian S, Leslie SW, Derian A.Pudendal nerve block. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Huang TCT, Adabi K, Arendt K, et al.Abstract: pudendal nerve blocks for vaginoplasty in gender confirmation surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2018;6(9 Suppl):191-192. doi:10.1097/01.GOX.0000547081.38478.a5GenderAid.Vaginoplasty.Loree JT, Burke MS, Rippe B, Clarke S, Moore SH, Loree TR.Transfeminine gender confirmation surgery with penile inversion vaginoplasty: an initial experience.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2020;8(5):e2873. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002873Salgado CJ, Nugent A, Kuhn J, Janette M, Bahna H.Primary sigmoid vaginoplasty in transwomen: technique and outcomes.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:4907208. doi:10.1155/2018/4907208American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What can I expect during a consultation for transfeminine bottom surgery?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.How should I prepare for transfeminine bottom surgery?Gender Confirmation Center.Everything you need to get bottom surgery.Gender Confirmation Center.Hair removal before bottom surgery.Downing J, Holt SK, Cunetta M, Gore JL, Dy GW.Spending and out-of-pocket costs for genital gender-affirming surgery in the US.JAMA Surg. 2022;157(9):799-806. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2022.2606Baker K, Restar A.Utilization and costs of gender-affirming care in a commercially insured transgender population.J Law Med Ethics. 2022;50(3):456-470. doi:10.1017/jme.2022.87American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is the cost of transfeminine bottom surgery?Cohen WA, Sangalang AM, Dalena MM, Ayyala HS, Keith JD.Navigating insurance policies in the United States for gender-affirming surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7(12):e2564. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002564World Professional Association for Transgender Health.Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people, 7th version.Kaiser Permanente Medical Group.Recovering from vaginoplasty and other feminizing genital surgeries.Bustos SS, Bustos VP, Mascaro A, et al.Complications and patient-reported outcomes in transfemale vaginoplasty: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2021;9(3):e3510. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000003510UCSF Transgender Care.Vaginoplasty procedures, complications, and aftercare.Women’s College Hospital.Vaginoplasty — common complications.Hess J, Henkel A, Bohr J, et al.Sexuality after male-to-female gender affirmation surgery.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:9037979. doi:10.1155/2018/9037979
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
American Urological Association.Vaginal agenesis.The Aesthetic Society.Vaginoplasty.Bertrand B, Perchenet AS, Casanova D.Histoire de la vaginoplastie : évolution technique et sociologique [The history of vaginoplasty: Technical and sociological advances].Ann Chir Plast Esthet. 2023;68(5-6):389-396. doi:10.1016/j.anplas.2023.07.001American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a labiaplasty?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a monsplasty?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is transfeminine bottom surgery?Dural Ö, Poyrazoğlu Ş.Conservative management of vaginal hypoplasia.J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2020;12(Suppl 1):50-52. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.galenos.2020.2019.S0222Lyons ME, Goldman JJ.Vulvar-vaginal reconstruction. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Desai SA, Kroumpouzos G, Sadick N.Vaginal rejuvenation: from scalpel to wands.Int J Womens Dermatol. 2019;5(2):79-84. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2019.02.003Kloer C, Parker A, Blasdel G, et al.Sexual health after vaginoplasty: a systematic review.Andrology. 2021;9(6):1744-1764. doi:10.1111/andr.13022Morrison SD, Claes K, Morris MP, et al.Principles and outcomes of gender-affirming vaginoplasty.Nat Rev Urol. 2023;20(5):308-322. doi:10.1038/s41585-022-00705-yGhanavatian S, Leslie SW, Derian A.Pudendal nerve block. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.Huang TCT, Adabi K, Arendt K, et al.Abstract: pudendal nerve blocks for vaginoplasty in gender confirmation surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2018;6(9 Suppl):191-192. doi:10.1097/01.GOX.0000547081.38478.a5GenderAid.Vaginoplasty.Loree JT, Burke MS, Rippe B, Clarke S, Moore SH, Loree TR.Transfeminine gender confirmation surgery with penile inversion vaginoplasty: an initial experience.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2020;8(5):e2873. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002873Salgado CJ, Nugent A, Kuhn J, Janette M, Bahna H.Primary sigmoid vaginoplasty in transwomen: technique and outcomes.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:4907208. doi:10.1155/2018/4907208American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What can I expect during a consultation for transfeminine bottom surgery?American Society of Plastic Surgeons.How should I prepare for transfeminine bottom surgery?Gender Confirmation Center.Everything you need to get bottom surgery.Gender Confirmation Center.Hair removal before bottom surgery.Downing J, Holt SK, Cunetta M, Gore JL, Dy GW.Spending and out-of-pocket costs for genital gender-affirming surgery in the US.JAMA Surg. 2022;157(9):799-806. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2022.2606Baker K, Restar A.Utilization and costs of gender-affirming care in a commercially insured transgender population.J Law Med Ethics. 2022;50(3):456-470. doi:10.1017/jme.2022.87American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is the cost of transfeminine bottom surgery?Cohen WA, Sangalang AM, Dalena MM, Ayyala HS, Keith JD.Navigating insurance policies in the United States for gender-affirming surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7(12):e2564. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002564World Professional Association for Transgender Health.Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people, 7th version.Kaiser Permanente Medical Group.Recovering from vaginoplasty and other feminizing genital surgeries.Bustos SS, Bustos VP, Mascaro A, et al.Complications and patient-reported outcomes in transfemale vaginoplasty: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2021;9(3):e3510. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000003510UCSF Transgender Care.Vaginoplasty procedures, complications, and aftercare.Women’s College Hospital.Vaginoplasty — common complications.Hess J, Henkel A, Bohr J, et al.Sexuality after male-to-female gender affirmation surgery.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:9037979. doi:10.1155/2018/9037979
American Urological Association.Vaginal agenesis.
The Aesthetic Society.Vaginoplasty.
Bertrand B, Perchenet AS, Casanova D.Histoire de la vaginoplastie : évolution technique et sociologique [The history of vaginoplasty: Technical and sociological advances].Ann Chir Plast Esthet. 2023;68(5-6):389-396. doi:10.1016/j.anplas.2023.07.001
American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a labiaplasty?
American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is a monsplasty?
American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is transfeminine bottom surgery?
Dural Ö, Poyrazoğlu Ş.Conservative management of vaginal hypoplasia.J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2020;12(Suppl 1):50-52. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.galenos.2020.2019.S0222
Lyons ME, Goldman JJ.Vulvar-vaginal reconstruction. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Desai SA, Kroumpouzos G, Sadick N.Vaginal rejuvenation: from scalpel to wands.Int J Womens Dermatol. 2019;5(2):79-84. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2019.02.003
Kloer C, Parker A, Blasdel G, et al.Sexual health after vaginoplasty: a systematic review.Andrology. 2021;9(6):1744-1764. doi:10.1111/andr.13022
Morrison SD, Claes K, Morris MP, et al.Principles and outcomes of gender-affirming vaginoplasty.Nat Rev Urol. 2023;20(5):308-322. doi:10.1038/s41585-022-00705-y
Ghanavatian S, Leslie SW, Derian A.Pudendal nerve block. In:StatPearls.StatPearls Publishing; 2024.
Huang TCT, Adabi K, Arendt K, et al.Abstract: pudendal nerve blocks for vaginoplasty in gender confirmation surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2018;6(9 Suppl):191-192. doi:10.1097/01.GOX.0000547081.38478.a5
GenderAid.Vaginoplasty.
Loree JT, Burke MS, Rippe B, Clarke S, Moore SH, Loree TR.Transfeminine gender confirmation surgery with penile inversion vaginoplasty: an initial experience.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2020;8(5):e2873. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002873
Salgado CJ, Nugent A, Kuhn J, Janette M, Bahna H.Primary sigmoid vaginoplasty in transwomen: technique and outcomes.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:4907208. doi:10.1155/2018/4907208
American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What can I expect during a consultation for transfeminine bottom surgery?
American Society of Plastic Surgeons.How should I prepare for transfeminine bottom surgery?
Gender Confirmation Center.Everything you need to get bottom surgery.
Gender Confirmation Center.Hair removal before bottom surgery.
Downing J, Holt SK, Cunetta M, Gore JL, Dy GW.Spending and out-of-pocket costs for genital gender-affirming surgery in the US.JAMA Surg. 2022;157(9):799-806. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2022.2606
Baker K, Restar A.Utilization and costs of gender-affirming care in a commercially insured transgender population.J Law Med Ethics. 2022;50(3):456-470. doi:10.1017/jme.2022.87
American Society of Plastic Surgeons.What is the cost of transfeminine bottom surgery?
Cohen WA, Sangalang AM, Dalena MM, Ayyala HS, Keith JD.Navigating insurance policies in the United States for gender-affirming surgery.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7(12):e2564. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000002564
World Professional Association for Transgender Health.Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people, 7th version.
Kaiser Permanente Medical Group.Recovering from vaginoplasty and other feminizing genital surgeries.
Bustos SS, Bustos VP, Mascaro A, et al.Complications and patient-reported outcomes in transfemale vaginoplasty: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2021;9(3):e3510. doi:10.1097/GOX.0000000000003510
UCSF Transgender Care.Vaginoplasty procedures, complications, and aftercare.
Women’s College Hospital.Vaginoplasty — common complications.
Hess J, Henkel A, Bohr J, et al.Sexuality after male-to-female gender affirmation surgery.Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:9037979. doi:10.1155/2018/9037979
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