Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhen Are Vasopressors Used?How Do They Work?Types of VasopressorsPossible Side EffectsSafety Considerations

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

When Are Vasopressors Used?

How Do They Work?

Types of Vasopressors

Possible Side Effects

Safety Considerations

Vasopressors are medications that can increase blood pressure in emergency situations. For certain conditions, these hormones are injected into a large vein using a central venous catheter (central line) in critical care settings (e.g., emergency departments and intensive care units).

Richard Bailey / Getty Images

Checking a cannula in a person’s arm in a hospital setting.

Typical scenarios in which healthcare providers may administer vasopressors include severe infections (likesepsis) or in critical care settings for conditions likeshock.

Sepsis is a life-threatening organ failure that occurs when the body doesn’t respond properly to an infection.It can result from pneumonia or infections of the skin, gastrointestinal tract, or urinary tract.

Sepsis is a significant cause of death in intensive care units (ICUs).Vasopressors are given for sepsis ifblood pressureremains low after healthcare providers have administered IV fluids.

Shock is a circulatory problem caused when organs or tissues don’t get enough blood.It’s the main reason people are admitted to the ICU.

There are differenttypes of shock, including the following:

When to Seek HelpIf you or someone you know shows signs of sepsis or shock, seeking medical attention right away is crucial. Time is of the essence, and rapid treatment (ideally within an hour)is necessary to preserve organ function.Signs of an emergency that may require treatment with vasopressors include:Altered mental statusLoss of consciousness (passing out)Cold, clammy skinWarm skinInability to urinateFeverLow blood pressure (hypotension)Difficulty breathingKeep in mind that these symptoms are nonspecific, meaning they can be signs of many different medical conditions. Call 911 if you or a loved one experience these symptoms to be safe.

When to Seek Help

If you or someone you know shows signs of sepsis or shock, seeking medical attention right away is crucial. Time is of the essence, and rapid treatment (ideally within an hour)is necessary to preserve organ function.Signs of an emergency that may require treatment with vasopressors include:Altered mental statusLoss of consciousness (passing out)Cold, clammy skinWarm skinInability to urinateFeverLow blood pressure (hypotension)Difficulty breathingKeep in mind that these symptoms are nonspecific, meaning they can be signs of many different medical conditions. Call 911 if you or a loved one experience these symptoms to be safe.

If you or someone you know shows signs of sepsis or shock, seeking medical attention right away is crucial. Time is of the essence, and rapid treatment (ideally within an hour)is necessary to preserve organ function.

Signs of an emergency that may require treatment with vasopressors include:

Keep in mind that these symptoms are nonspecific, meaning they can be signs of many different medical conditions. Call 911 if you or a loved one experience these symptoms to be safe.

How Do Vasopressors Work?

Vasopressors activate (turning on) receptors in the heart and blood vessels.When these receptors turn on, the body’s “fight or flight response” (thesympathetic nervous system) also activates.

Vasopressors function in the body to constrict (narrow) blood vessels.When blood vessels constrict, blood pressure increases,and more blood is released into the body.The blood then delivers oxygen and other necessary nutrients to vital organs so they can continue to function.

Some vasopressors (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine) are made in the body. These are calledendogenouscatecholamines(hormones made in the body that transmit chemical messages).

Other vasopressors, like phenylephrine, are exogenous catecholamines—they’re not made in the body.

Vasopressors available in the United States include:

Vasopressors are associated with severe side effects, such asheart attacksand blood loss to parts of the body (ischemia).For this reason, they are used only when necessary, usually at low doses and for a short period.

Healthcare providers give these medicines in healthcare settings and will closely monitor you if you receive them. They’ll watch for common side effects such as:

Some potential side effects you might notice include:

Be sure to inform your healthcare provider immediately if you or someone you are caring for experience any of these side effects while being treated with vasopressors.

Several important safety concerns are associated with vasopressor infusions. Here are some key points to keep in mind.

Some people should not use vasopressors. These include people who are allergic to components of these medicines.

Vasopressors can interact with other medications. Some notable interactions include, but are not limited to:

Healthcare providers and pharmacists will make decisions about your hospital treatment plan based on your current medication regimen. If you or a loved one cannot provide them with an up-to-date medicine list, a healthcare provider can typically consult your electronic medical record instead.

Summary

Vasopressors can save lives, but they come with serious safety concerns. Fortunately, when you need vasopressors, healthcare providers will closely monitor you for potentially serious side effects. These include abnormal heart rate or rhythm and circulation problems in your fingers or toes.

27 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Russell JA.Vasopressor therapy in critically ill patients with shock.Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(11):1503-1517. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05801-zGauer R, Forbes D, Boyer N.Sepsis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2020;101(7):409-418.Hejazi ME, Samadi-Takaldani AH, Ranjbar A, et al.Mortality rate of sepsis patients in the intensive care unit: The prognostic role of ejection fraction and procalcitonin.Galen Med J. 2021;10:e2044. Published 2021 Jun 22. doi:10.31661/gmj.v10i0.2044Kislitsina ON, Rich JD, Wilcox JE, et al.Shock — classification and pathophysiological principles of therapeutics.Curr Cardiol Rev. 2019;15(2):102-113. doi:10.2174/1573403X15666181212125024Durand A, Cartier L, Duburcq T, et al.Causes, diagnosis and treatments of circulatory shocks.Rev Med Interne. 2019;40(12):799-807. doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2019.08.006Russell JA, Gordon AC, Williams MD, et al.Vasopressor therapy in the intensive care unit.Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;42(1):59-77. doi:10.1055/s-0040-1710320Jentzer JC, Hollenberg SM.Vasopressor and inotrope therapy in cardiac critical care.J Intensive Care Med. 2021;36(8):843-856. doi:10.1177/0885066620917630Gupta B, Garg N, Ramachandran R.Vasopressors: Do they have any role in hemorrhagic shock?J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2017;33(1):3-8. doi:10.4103/0970-9185.202185Shi R, Hamzaoui O, De Vita N, et al.Vasopressors in septic shock: which, when, and how much?Ann Transl Med. 2020;8(12):794. doi:10.21037/atm.2020.04.24Standl T, Annecke T, Cascorbi I, et al.The nomenclature, definition and distinction of types of shock.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018;115(45):757-768. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2018.0757Jentzer JC, Coons JC, Link CB, et al.Pharmacotherapy update on the use of vasopressors and inotropes in the intensive care unit.J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20(3):249-260. doi:10.1177/1074248414559838Motiejunaite J, Amar L, Vidal-Petiot E.Adrenergic receptors and cardiovascular effects of catecholamines.Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2021;82(3-4):193-197. doi:10.1016/j.ando.2020.03.012VanValkinburgh D, Kerndt CC, Hashmi MF.Inotropes and vasopressors. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; February 19, 2023Ferguson-Myrthil N.Vasopressor use in adult patients.Cardiol Rev. 2012;20(3):153-158. doi:10.1097/CRD.0b013e31824e2294Jozwiak M, Geri G, Laghlam D, et al.Vasopressors and risk of acute mesenteric ischemia: a worldwide pharmacovigilance analysis and comprehensive literature review.Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:826446. Published 2022 May 23. doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.826446Jentzer JC, Vallabhajosyula S, Khanna AK, et al.Management of refractory vasodilatory shock.Chest. 2018;154(2):416-426. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2017.12.021Mets B.Should norepinephrine, rather than phenylephrine, be considered the primary vasopressor in anesthetic practice? [published correction appears in Anesth Analg. 2016 Aug;123(2):522].Anesth Analg. 2016;122(5):1707-1714. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001239Avni T, Lador A, Lev S, et al.Vasopressors for the treatment of septic shock: systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0129305. Published 2015 Aug 3. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129305Allen JM, Gilbert BW.Angiotensin II: a new vasopressor for the treatment of distributive shock.Clin Ther. 2019;41(12):2594-2610. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2019.09.014Jia L, Wang P, Li C, et al.The efficacy and safety of vasopressors for septic shock patients: a systemic review and network meta-analysis.Shock. 2023;60(6):746-752. doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000002193U.S. Food and Drug Administration.LEVOPHED® (norepinephrine bitartrate) injection prescribing information.Attallah N, Hassan E, Jama AB, et al.Management of vasopressor-induced acute limb ischemia (VIALI) in septic shock.Cureus. 2022;14(12):e33118. Published 2022 Dec 30. doi:10.7759/cureus.33118Livesey M, Jauregui JJ, Hamaker MC, et al.Management of vasopressor induced ischemia.J Orthop. 2020;22:497-502. Published 2020 Oct 16. doi:10.1016/j.jor.2020.10.012Polfer EM, Zimmerman RM, Tefera E, et al.The effect of skin pigmentation on determination of limb ischemia.J Hand Surg Am. 2018;43(1):24-32.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.09.002U.S. Food and Drug Administration.PHENYLEPHRINE HYDROCHLORIDE injection prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.VASOPRESSIN IN SODIUM CHLORIDE INJECTION prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.EPINEPHRINE INJECTION USP prescribing information.

27 Sources

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Russell JA.Vasopressor therapy in critically ill patients with shock.Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(11):1503-1517. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05801-zGauer R, Forbes D, Boyer N.Sepsis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2020;101(7):409-418.Hejazi ME, Samadi-Takaldani AH, Ranjbar A, et al.Mortality rate of sepsis patients in the intensive care unit: The prognostic role of ejection fraction and procalcitonin.Galen Med J. 2021;10:e2044. Published 2021 Jun 22. doi:10.31661/gmj.v10i0.2044Kislitsina ON, Rich JD, Wilcox JE, et al.Shock — classification and pathophysiological principles of therapeutics.Curr Cardiol Rev. 2019;15(2):102-113. doi:10.2174/1573403X15666181212125024Durand A, Cartier L, Duburcq T, et al.Causes, diagnosis and treatments of circulatory shocks.Rev Med Interne. 2019;40(12):799-807. doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2019.08.006Russell JA, Gordon AC, Williams MD, et al.Vasopressor therapy in the intensive care unit.Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;42(1):59-77. doi:10.1055/s-0040-1710320Jentzer JC, Hollenberg SM.Vasopressor and inotrope therapy in cardiac critical care.J Intensive Care Med. 2021;36(8):843-856. doi:10.1177/0885066620917630Gupta B, Garg N, Ramachandran R.Vasopressors: Do they have any role in hemorrhagic shock?J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2017;33(1):3-8. doi:10.4103/0970-9185.202185Shi R, Hamzaoui O, De Vita N, et al.Vasopressors in septic shock: which, when, and how much?Ann Transl Med. 2020;8(12):794. doi:10.21037/atm.2020.04.24Standl T, Annecke T, Cascorbi I, et al.The nomenclature, definition and distinction of types of shock.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018;115(45):757-768. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2018.0757Jentzer JC, Coons JC, Link CB, et al.Pharmacotherapy update on the use of vasopressors and inotropes in the intensive care unit.J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20(3):249-260. doi:10.1177/1074248414559838Motiejunaite J, Amar L, Vidal-Petiot E.Adrenergic receptors and cardiovascular effects of catecholamines.Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2021;82(3-4):193-197. doi:10.1016/j.ando.2020.03.012VanValkinburgh D, Kerndt CC, Hashmi MF.Inotropes and vasopressors. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; February 19, 2023Ferguson-Myrthil N.Vasopressor use in adult patients.Cardiol Rev. 2012;20(3):153-158. doi:10.1097/CRD.0b013e31824e2294Jozwiak M, Geri G, Laghlam D, et al.Vasopressors and risk of acute mesenteric ischemia: a worldwide pharmacovigilance analysis and comprehensive literature review.Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:826446. Published 2022 May 23. doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.826446Jentzer JC, Vallabhajosyula S, Khanna AK, et al.Management of refractory vasodilatory shock.Chest. 2018;154(2):416-426. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2017.12.021Mets B.Should norepinephrine, rather than phenylephrine, be considered the primary vasopressor in anesthetic practice? [published correction appears in Anesth Analg. 2016 Aug;123(2):522].Anesth Analg. 2016;122(5):1707-1714. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001239Avni T, Lador A, Lev S, et al.Vasopressors for the treatment of septic shock: systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0129305. Published 2015 Aug 3. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129305Allen JM, Gilbert BW.Angiotensin II: a new vasopressor for the treatment of distributive shock.Clin Ther. 2019;41(12):2594-2610. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2019.09.014Jia L, Wang P, Li C, et al.The efficacy and safety of vasopressors for septic shock patients: a systemic review and network meta-analysis.Shock. 2023;60(6):746-752. doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000002193U.S. Food and Drug Administration.LEVOPHED® (norepinephrine bitartrate) injection prescribing information.Attallah N, Hassan E, Jama AB, et al.Management of vasopressor-induced acute limb ischemia (VIALI) in septic shock.Cureus. 2022;14(12):e33118. Published 2022 Dec 30. doi:10.7759/cureus.33118Livesey M, Jauregui JJ, Hamaker MC, et al.Management of vasopressor induced ischemia.J Orthop. 2020;22:497-502. Published 2020 Oct 16. doi:10.1016/j.jor.2020.10.012Polfer EM, Zimmerman RM, Tefera E, et al.The effect of skin pigmentation on determination of limb ischemia.J Hand Surg Am. 2018;43(1):24-32.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.09.002U.S. Food and Drug Administration.PHENYLEPHRINE HYDROCHLORIDE injection prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.VASOPRESSIN IN SODIUM CHLORIDE INJECTION prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.EPINEPHRINE INJECTION USP prescribing information.

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Russell JA.Vasopressor therapy in critically ill patients with shock.Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(11):1503-1517. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05801-zGauer R, Forbes D, Boyer N.Sepsis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2020;101(7):409-418.Hejazi ME, Samadi-Takaldani AH, Ranjbar A, et al.Mortality rate of sepsis patients in the intensive care unit: The prognostic role of ejection fraction and procalcitonin.Galen Med J. 2021;10:e2044. Published 2021 Jun 22. doi:10.31661/gmj.v10i0.2044Kislitsina ON, Rich JD, Wilcox JE, et al.Shock — classification and pathophysiological principles of therapeutics.Curr Cardiol Rev. 2019;15(2):102-113. doi:10.2174/1573403X15666181212125024Durand A, Cartier L, Duburcq T, et al.Causes, diagnosis and treatments of circulatory shocks.Rev Med Interne. 2019;40(12):799-807. doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2019.08.006Russell JA, Gordon AC, Williams MD, et al.Vasopressor therapy in the intensive care unit.Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;42(1):59-77. doi:10.1055/s-0040-1710320Jentzer JC, Hollenberg SM.Vasopressor and inotrope therapy in cardiac critical care.J Intensive Care Med. 2021;36(8):843-856. doi:10.1177/0885066620917630Gupta B, Garg N, Ramachandran R.Vasopressors: Do they have any role in hemorrhagic shock?J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2017;33(1):3-8. doi:10.4103/0970-9185.202185Shi R, Hamzaoui O, De Vita N, et al.Vasopressors in septic shock: which, when, and how much?Ann Transl Med. 2020;8(12):794. doi:10.21037/atm.2020.04.24Standl T, Annecke T, Cascorbi I, et al.The nomenclature, definition and distinction of types of shock.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018;115(45):757-768. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2018.0757Jentzer JC, Coons JC, Link CB, et al.Pharmacotherapy update on the use of vasopressors and inotropes in the intensive care unit.J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20(3):249-260. doi:10.1177/1074248414559838Motiejunaite J, Amar L, Vidal-Petiot E.Adrenergic receptors and cardiovascular effects of catecholamines.Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2021;82(3-4):193-197. doi:10.1016/j.ando.2020.03.012VanValkinburgh D, Kerndt CC, Hashmi MF.Inotropes and vasopressors. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; February 19, 2023Ferguson-Myrthil N.Vasopressor use in adult patients.Cardiol Rev. 2012;20(3):153-158. doi:10.1097/CRD.0b013e31824e2294Jozwiak M, Geri G, Laghlam D, et al.Vasopressors and risk of acute mesenteric ischemia: a worldwide pharmacovigilance analysis and comprehensive literature review.Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:826446. Published 2022 May 23. doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.826446Jentzer JC, Vallabhajosyula S, Khanna AK, et al.Management of refractory vasodilatory shock.Chest. 2018;154(2):416-426. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2017.12.021Mets B.Should norepinephrine, rather than phenylephrine, be considered the primary vasopressor in anesthetic practice? [published correction appears in Anesth Analg. 2016 Aug;123(2):522].Anesth Analg. 2016;122(5):1707-1714. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001239Avni T, Lador A, Lev S, et al.Vasopressors for the treatment of septic shock: systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0129305. Published 2015 Aug 3. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129305Allen JM, Gilbert BW.Angiotensin II: a new vasopressor for the treatment of distributive shock.Clin Ther. 2019;41(12):2594-2610. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2019.09.014Jia L, Wang P, Li C, et al.The efficacy and safety of vasopressors for septic shock patients: a systemic review and network meta-analysis.Shock. 2023;60(6):746-752. doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000002193U.S. Food and Drug Administration.LEVOPHED® (norepinephrine bitartrate) injection prescribing information.Attallah N, Hassan E, Jama AB, et al.Management of vasopressor-induced acute limb ischemia (VIALI) in septic shock.Cureus. 2022;14(12):e33118. Published 2022 Dec 30. doi:10.7759/cureus.33118Livesey M, Jauregui JJ, Hamaker MC, et al.Management of vasopressor induced ischemia.J Orthop. 2020;22:497-502. Published 2020 Oct 16. doi:10.1016/j.jor.2020.10.012Polfer EM, Zimmerman RM, Tefera E, et al.The effect of skin pigmentation on determination of limb ischemia.J Hand Surg Am. 2018;43(1):24-32.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.09.002U.S. Food and Drug Administration.PHENYLEPHRINE HYDROCHLORIDE injection prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.VASOPRESSIN IN SODIUM CHLORIDE INJECTION prescribing information.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.EPINEPHRINE INJECTION USP prescribing information.

Russell JA.Vasopressor therapy in critically ill patients with shock.Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(11):1503-1517. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05801-z

Gauer R, Forbes D, Boyer N.Sepsis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2020;101(7):409-418.

Hejazi ME, Samadi-Takaldani AH, Ranjbar A, et al.Mortality rate of sepsis patients in the intensive care unit: The prognostic role of ejection fraction and procalcitonin.Galen Med J. 2021;10:e2044. Published 2021 Jun 22. doi:10.31661/gmj.v10i0.2044

Kislitsina ON, Rich JD, Wilcox JE, et al.Shock — classification and pathophysiological principles of therapeutics.Curr Cardiol Rev. 2019;15(2):102-113. doi:10.2174/1573403X15666181212125024

Durand A, Cartier L, Duburcq T, et al.Causes, diagnosis and treatments of circulatory shocks.Rev Med Interne. 2019;40(12):799-807. doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2019.08.006

Russell JA, Gordon AC, Williams MD, et al.Vasopressor therapy in the intensive care unit.Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;42(1):59-77. doi:10.1055/s-0040-1710320

Jentzer JC, Hollenberg SM.Vasopressor and inotrope therapy in cardiac critical care.J Intensive Care Med. 2021;36(8):843-856. doi:10.1177/0885066620917630

Gupta B, Garg N, Ramachandran R.Vasopressors: Do they have any role in hemorrhagic shock?J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2017;33(1):3-8. doi:10.4103/0970-9185.202185

Shi R, Hamzaoui O, De Vita N, et al.Vasopressors in septic shock: which, when, and how much?Ann Transl Med. 2020;8(12):794. doi:10.21037/atm.2020.04.24

Standl T, Annecke T, Cascorbi I, et al.The nomenclature, definition and distinction of types of shock.Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018;115(45):757-768. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2018.0757

Jentzer JC, Coons JC, Link CB, et al.Pharmacotherapy update on the use of vasopressors and inotropes in the intensive care unit.J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20(3):249-260. doi:10.1177/1074248414559838

Motiejunaite J, Amar L, Vidal-Petiot E.Adrenergic receptors and cardiovascular effects of catecholamines.Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2021;82(3-4):193-197. doi:10.1016/j.ando.2020.03.012

VanValkinburgh D, Kerndt CC, Hashmi MF.Inotropes and vasopressors. In:StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; February 19, 2023

Ferguson-Myrthil N.Vasopressor use in adult patients.Cardiol Rev. 2012;20(3):153-158. doi:10.1097/CRD.0b013e31824e2294

Jozwiak M, Geri G, Laghlam D, et al.Vasopressors and risk of acute mesenteric ischemia: a worldwide pharmacovigilance analysis and comprehensive literature review.Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:826446. Published 2022 May 23. doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.826446

Jentzer JC, Vallabhajosyula S, Khanna AK, et al.Management of refractory vasodilatory shock.Chest. 2018;154(2):416-426. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2017.12.021

Mets B.Should norepinephrine, rather than phenylephrine, be considered the primary vasopressor in anesthetic practice? [published correction appears in Anesth Analg. 2016 Aug;123(2):522].Anesth Analg. 2016;122(5):1707-1714. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001239

Avni T, Lador A, Lev S, et al.Vasopressors for the treatment of septic shock: systematic review and meta-analysis.PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0129305. Published 2015 Aug 3. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129305

Allen JM, Gilbert BW.Angiotensin II: a new vasopressor for the treatment of distributive shock.Clin Ther. 2019;41(12):2594-2610. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2019.09.014

Jia L, Wang P, Li C, et al.The efficacy and safety of vasopressors for septic shock patients: a systemic review and network meta-analysis.Shock. 2023;60(6):746-752. doi:10.1097/SHK.0000000000002193

U.S. Food and Drug Administration.LEVOPHED® (norepinephrine bitartrate) injection prescribing information.

Attallah N, Hassan E, Jama AB, et al.Management of vasopressor-induced acute limb ischemia (VIALI) in septic shock.Cureus. 2022;14(12):e33118. Published 2022 Dec 30. doi:10.7759/cureus.33118

Livesey M, Jauregui JJ, Hamaker MC, et al.Management of vasopressor induced ischemia.J Orthop. 2020;22:497-502. Published 2020 Oct 16. doi:10.1016/j.jor.2020.10.012

Polfer EM, Zimmerman RM, Tefera E, et al.The effect of skin pigmentation on determination of limb ischemia.J Hand Surg Am. 2018;43(1):24-32.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jhsa.2017.09.002

U.S. Food and Drug Administration.PHENYLEPHRINE HYDROCHLORIDE injection prescribing information.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration.VASOPRESSIN IN SODIUM CHLORIDE INJECTION prescribing information.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration.EPINEPHRINE INJECTION USP prescribing information.

Meet Our Medical Expert Board

Share Feedback

Was this page helpful?Thanks for your feedback!What is your feedback?OtherHelpfulReport an ErrorSubmit

Was this page helpful?

Thanks for your feedback!

What is your feedback?OtherHelpfulReport an ErrorSubmit

What is your feedback?