Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsDefinition and ExamplesFactorsAfter the Incubation Period
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Definition and Examples
Factors
After the Incubation Period
An incubation period is the time from exposure to an infectious agent to when you actually develop symptoms.Most people do not develop symptoms immediately after exposure to avirusorbacteria. It will take time for the virus or bacteria to infect you enough to feel sick.
For example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report thatCOVID-19 symptomsmay present anywhere from two to 14 days after exposure to the virus.A food-bornebacterial infectionlikeSalmonellacan cause symptoms within 6 hours to six days.Conversely, theflu virushas an incubation period of one to four days.
This article will cover incubation period examples, factors that might affect the incubation period, when to isolate, what happens after the incubation period, and more.
FG Trade / Getty Images
Incubation Period: A Simple Definition with Examples
The incubation period is the time from acquiring an infection until the onset of symptoms.
You will not develop symptoms immediately after acquiring a virus, bacteria, or fungus. It will take time for the organism to multiply and infect enough of the body’s cells for your body to react to it and for you to feel sick.
You may not know you have an infection during the incubation period, but you will feel sick once the infection has developed enough.
Incubation periods ininfectious diseasescan help provide information during an outbreak, including when symptoms start and when someone is most likely to transmit the infection.They can also offer insight into disease severity and how long an illness might last. Incubation periods will vary based on the type of virus or bacteria.
COVID-19
COVID-19 testingcan detect SARS-COV-2—the virus that causes COVID-19—at specific points during the infection, often when symptoms start. If you test too early or too late, you may get a false negative and unknowingly spread the virus.
Start of an incubation period: The average COVID-19 incubation period is around five days. Symptoms of COVID-19 can appear as early as two days and as late as 14 days after exposure to the virus.The incubation period starts when you first come in contact with the virus and become infected.
During this time, the coronavirus will invade cells in your body and replicate. You might be contagious during this time, and studies have found that you are more likely to spread the virus during incubation.
This is often because people who do not know they have the virus will not take precautions to prevent infection spread. But anyone with COVID-19 can spread the virus despite symptoms, variant type, and vaccine status.
End of incubation period: The start of symptoms ends the incubation period. Symptoms and symptom severity will vary from person to person. Once you experience symptoms, you can quickly spread the virus via tiny respiratory droplets or aerosol particles that leave the body with sneezing, coughing, or speaking.
How Long Is the Covid-19 Incubation Period?
Influenza
Start of incubation period: The incubation period for the flu is between one and four days, but this varies from person to person.The average incubation period is two days, which means most people develop symptoms two days after exposure to an infected person.
End of incubation period: Symptoms of the flu start at the end of the incubation period. But you can spread the virus to others at least a day before you notice symptoms. You are most contagious the first day you experience symptoms.Older adults, children, and people with weakened immune systems might be contagious for longer.
How Long Is the Flu Contagious?
The Common Cold
Thecommon coldis a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract, affecting the nose, throat, sinuses, and larynx (voice box).Symptoms include sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, coughing, headache, and low-grade fever—between 99 degrees F (37.2 C) and 100.4 degrees F (38.0 C). Different viruses are associated with the cold, including rhinoviruses, adenoviruses, and enteroviruses.
Start of incubation period: The incubation period for the common cold is short, ranging from two to five days.The appearance of symptoms will depend on the virus you were exposed to.
For example, if you have been exposed to a rhinovirus, you can expect symptoms between 12 to 72 hours after exposure. Other cold viruses may have more extended incubation periods.
End of incubation period: The incubation period for the cold will end when symptoms start. You may experience a scratchy throat, a runny nose, or fatigue early on, and after that, sneezing and a sore throat. As soon as symptoms appear, you are contagious and can spread the virus.
What Is a Cold?
Chickenpox
Start of incubation period: The incubation period for the varicella-zoster virus is 10 to 21 days after exposure.During the incubation period, the virus will enter the body and spread, but there will be no symptoms.
End of incubation period: At the end of the incubation period, a prodromal stage of one to two days starts where you will experience flu-like symptoms, including fever, sore throat, headache, and fatigue.Adults are more likely to have these symptoms, while children will only develop a rash.
You are most contagious during this time and can spread the virus to others. Once the rash appears, it will start as small red bumps on the face, chest, and back, spreading to other skin areas. These bumps will become fluid-filled and eventually crust over and fall off.
As blisters heal, they will be itchy and painful. Full recovery could take up to two weeks.
Incubation Periods of Childhood Diseases
Bacterial Infections
Bacterial infections can affect various body areas, including the skin, lungs, brain, and blood. You can get a bacterial infection after direct contact with bacteria from an infected person (e.g., touching, kissing, coughing, sneezing, etc.), exchanging body fluids, contact with infected surfaces, and consuming contaminated food or water.
Examples of bacterial infections includefood poisoning,respiratory infections, skin infections, gastrointestinal infections, urinary tract infections, andsexually transmitted infections(STIs). Incubation periods and symptoms will vary based on the type of bacteria involved.
Each STI has its own incubation period. For example, the incubation period is one to 14 days forgonorrheaand seven to 21 days forchlamydia.
The Incubation Period of Common STIs
Antibioticsare used to treat bacterial infections. You are no longer contagious after treatment, although this can sometimes differ depending on the bacterial cause.
Viral vs. Bacterial Infection: What’s the Difference?
Factors That Change the Incubation Period
Incubation periods will vary depending on the infection type, the pathogen’s strength, and exposure dose.Vaccine status and prior infection usually do not affect incubation periods.
Infection Type
Depending on the cause of the disease, the incubation period could be a few hours to several months. For example, the incubation period for the stomach flu could be less than 24 hours,while the incubation period for hepatitis A could be up to 50 days.
The incubation period will start after exposure to the infection source and before symptoms start. Exposure to the infection source does not mean you will become infected or that you will develop symptoms. One 2021 research review found that asymptomatic (no symptoms) COVID-19 affects about 40.5% of people who test positive for the virus.
Strength of the Pathogen
Viral and bacterial pathogens can cause minor harm or severe harm. The incubation period may depend on the pathogen’s strength based on the harm it might cause.
For example, highly virulent (harmful) pathogens will almost always lead to disease when they hit the body and have a short incubation period.Less virulent pathogens or avirulent (not harmful) ones may cause an initial infection that takes longer to cause symptoms. These types of pathogens will cause a mild disease or may be asymptomatic.
Exposure Dose
The exposure dose (also called viral dose) is the amount of infectious virus transmitted from one person to another. Some studies on COVID-19 find that higher or more potent viral doses can make some people more contagious than others.
The likelihood of becoming infected with COVID-19 may increase based on how much exposure you have had to an infected person.
The incubation period ends when you first notice symptoms of an illness after exposure to a pathogen.
For most viral illnesses, you will be contagious at some time during the incubation period and then throughout the time symptoms are present. Some viruses can still be transmitted after you no longer have symptoms.
People with COVID-19 are the most contagious in the first two days before and three days after symptoms develop.You could be contagious up to 10 days after symptoms start, especially if you have a more severe disease.
For the common cold and the flu, you can transmit the virus to others at least a day before you notice symptoms, and you are most contagious the first day you experience symptoms.
CDC’s Respiratory Virus GuidanceIf you test positive for the flu or COVID-19, it’s important that you take certain precautions to reduce the chances of spreading the infection.If you have respiratory virus symptoms, the CDC recommends that you:Isolate at home until you’ve been fever-free for 24 hours (without taking fever-reducing medication) AND your symptoms are mild and improving.Take additional precautions for five days following isolation, such as wearing a well-fitting mask, keeping a distance from others, and washing your hands often.
CDC’s Respiratory Virus Guidance
If you test positive for the flu or COVID-19, it’s important that you take certain precautions to reduce the chances of spreading the infection.If you have respiratory virus symptoms, the CDC recommends that you:Isolate at home until you’ve been fever-free for 24 hours (without taking fever-reducing medication) AND your symptoms are mild and improving.Take additional precautions for five days following isolation, such as wearing a well-fitting mask, keeping a distance from others, and washing your hands often.
If you test positive for the flu or COVID-19, it’s important that you take certain precautions to reduce the chances of spreading the infection.
If you have respiratory virus symptoms, the CDC recommends that you:
Chickenpox is highly contagious, and you will be the most contagious one to two days before you develop a rash.You will continue to be contagious until blisters have crusted, so you must isolate for the entire time to avoid spreading the virus to others. According to the CDC, you are no longer contagious after you have had no new lesions for 24 hours.
Some bacteria and viruses may remain in the body after infection and can continue to be transmitted to others after symptoms resolve. Examples include herpes, hepatitis, methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA), andSalmonella.
Some ways to reduce the risk of infections are handwashing, not sharing personal items, covering your mouth with sneezing and coughing, getting vaccinated, wearing face masks, practicing food safety, and practicing safer sex (i.e., limiting partners and using condoms consistently).
Summary
The incubation period of a virus or bacteria is the time it takes to develop symptoms after infection. The COVID-19 incubation period is two to 14 days. Timelines for incubation periods will vary based on the infection type, strength of the pathogen, and exposure dose. Vaccine status and prior infection usually do not affect incubation periods.
You are typically contagious during the incubation period. The incubation period ends when symptoms start. You might be the most contagious the first day or two after symptoms start.
If you are sick, there are steps you can take to prevent spreading the infection to others. For COVID-19 and other respiratory viruses, it is recommended that you isolate until you are fever-free for at least 24 hours (without taking fever-reducing medication). It’s also important to take added precautions for five days after isolation.
28 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Zeng K, Santhya S, Soong A, et al.Serial intervals and incubation periods of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and Delta variants,Singapore.Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(4):814-817. doi:10.3201/eid2904.220854Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Symptoms of COVID-19.FoodSafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How flu spreads.Linton NM, Kobayashi T, Yang Y, et al.Incubation period and other epidemiological characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infections with right truncation: a statistical analysis of publicly available case data.J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):538. doi:10.3390/jcm9020538Alene M, Yismaw L, Assemie MA, Ketema DB, Gietaneh W, Birhan TY.Serial interval and incubation period of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):257. doi:10.1186/s12879-021-05950-xGrant R, Charmet T, Schaeffer L, et al.Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant on incubation, transmission settings and vaccine effectiveness: results from a nationwide case-control study in France.Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2022;13:100278. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100278Jansen L, Tegomoh B, Lange K, et al.Investigation of a SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant Cluster - Nebraska, November-December 2021.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(5152):1782-1784. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm705152e3Dhouib W, Maatoug J, Ayouni I, et al.The incubation period during the pandemic of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Syst Rev. 2021;10(1):101. doi:10.1186/s13643-021-01648-yPassioti M, Maggina P, Megremis S, Papadopoulos NG.The common cold: potential for future prevention or cure.Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2014;14(2):413. doi:10.1007/s11882-013-0413-5Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How infections spread.MedlinePlus.Strep throat.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Campylobacter(campylobacteriosis).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.CDC yellow book 2024: sexually transmitted infections.van Seventer JM, Hochberg NS.Principles of infectious diseases: transmission, diagnosis, prevention, and control.International Encyclopedia of Public Health. 2017;22-39. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6Cortés Martínez J, Pak D, Abelenda-Alonso G, et al.SARS-Cov-2 incubation period according to vaccination status during the fifth COVID-19 wave in a tertiary-care center in Spain: a cohort study.BMC Infect Dis. 2022;22(1):828. doi:10.1186/s12879-022-07822-4Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis A.Ma Q, Liu J, Liu Q, et al.Global percentage of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections among the tested population and individuals with confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(12):e2137257. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.37257Parker N, Schneegurt M, Thi Tu A, Forster BM, Lister P.12.2: Characteristics and steps of infectious diseases. In: Case M., ed.Microbiology.LibreTests; 2023.Brosseau LM, Escandón K, Ulrich AK, et al.Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) dose, infection, and disease outcomes for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review.Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(1):e1195-e1201. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab903Ge Y, Martinez L, Sun S, et al.COVID-19 transmission dynamics among close contacts of index patients with COVID-19: A population-based cohort study in Zhejiang province, China.JAMA Intern Med. 2021;181(10):1343-1350. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.4686Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Respiratory virus guidance.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella) transmission.Whitley RJ, Hook EW.Shedding patterns of genital herpes simplex virus infections.JAMA. 2022;328(17):1710. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.18930Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis B frequently asked questions for the public.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) general information.Gunn JS, Marshall JM, Baker S, Dongol S, Charles RC, Ryan ET.Salmonella chronic carriage: epidemiology, diagnosis, and gallbladder persistence.Trends Microbiol. 2014;22(11):648-655. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2014.06.007
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Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Zeng K, Santhya S, Soong A, et al.Serial intervals and incubation periods of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and Delta variants,Singapore.Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(4):814-817. doi:10.3201/eid2904.220854Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Symptoms of COVID-19.FoodSafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How flu spreads.Linton NM, Kobayashi T, Yang Y, et al.Incubation period and other epidemiological characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infections with right truncation: a statistical analysis of publicly available case data.J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):538. doi:10.3390/jcm9020538Alene M, Yismaw L, Assemie MA, Ketema DB, Gietaneh W, Birhan TY.Serial interval and incubation period of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):257. doi:10.1186/s12879-021-05950-xGrant R, Charmet T, Schaeffer L, et al.Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant on incubation, transmission settings and vaccine effectiveness: results from a nationwide case-control study in France.Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2022;13:100278. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100278Jansen L, Tegomoh B, Lange K, et al.Investigation of a SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant Cluster - Nebraska, November-December 2021.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(5152):1782-1784. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm705152e3Dhouib W, Maatoug J, Ayouni I, et al.The incubation period during the pandemic of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Syst Rev. 2021;10(1):101. doi:10.1186/s13643-021-01648-yPassioti M, Maggina P, Megremis S, Papadopoulos NG.The common cold: potential for future prevention or cure.Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2014;14(2):413. doi:10.1007/s11882-013-0413-5Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How infections spread.MedlinePlus.Strep throat.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Campylobacter(campylobacteriosis).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.CDC yellow book 2024: sexually transmitted infections.van Seventer JM, Hochberg NS.Principles of infectious diseases: transmission, diagnosis, prevention, and control.International Encyclopedia of Public Health. 2017;22-39. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6Cortés Martínez J, Pak D, Abelenda-Alonso G, et al.SARS-Cov-2 incubation period according to vaccination status during the fifth COVID-19 wave in a tertiary-care center in Spain: a cohort study.BMC Infect Dis. 2022;22(1):828. doi:10.1186/s12879-022-07822-4Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis A.Ma Q, Liu J, Liu Q, et al.Global percentage of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections among the tested population and individuals with confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(12):e2137257. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.37257Parker N, Schneegurt M, Thi Tu A, Forster BM, Lister P.12.2: Characteristics and steps of infectious diseases. In: Case M., ed.Microbiology.LibreTests; 2023.Brosseau LM, Escandón K, Ulrich AK, et al.Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) dose, infection, and disease outcomes for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review.Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(1):e1195-e1201. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab903Ge Y, Martinez L, Sun S, et al.COVID-19 transmission dynamics among close contacts of index patients with COVID-19: A population-based cohort study in Zhejiang province, China.JAMA Intern Med. 2021;181(10):1343-1350. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.4686Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Respiratory virus guidance.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella) transmission.Whitley RJ, Hook EW.Shedding patterns of genital herpes simplex virus infections.JAMA. 2022;328(17):1710. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.18930Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis B frequently asked questions for the public.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) general information.Gunn JS, Marshall JM, Baker S, Dongol S, Charles RC, Ryan ET.Salmonella chronic carriage: epidemiology, diagnosis, and gallbladder persistence.Trends Microbiol. 2014;22(11):648-655. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2014.06.007
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
Zeng K, Santhya S, Soong A, et al.Serial intervals and incubation periods of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and Delta variants,Singapore.Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(4):814-817. doi:10.3201/eid2904.220854Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Symptoms of COVID-19.FoodSafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How flu spreads.Linton NM, Kobayashi T, Yang Y, et al.Incubation period and other epidemiological characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infections with right truncation: a statistical analysis of publicly available case data.J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):538. doi:10.3390/jcm9020538Alene M, Yismaw L, Assemie MA, Ketema DB, Gietaneh W, Birhan TY.Serial interval and incubation period of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):257. doi:10.1186/s12879-021-05950-xGrant R, Charmet T, Schaeffer L, et al.Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant on incubation, transmission settings and vaccine effectiveness: results from a nationwide case-control study in France.Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2022;13:100278. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100278Jansen L, Tegomoh B, Lange K, et al.Investigation of a SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant Cluster - Nebraska, November-December 2021.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(5152):1782-1784. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm705152e3Dhouib W, Maatoug J, Ayouni I, et al.The incubation period during the pandemic of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Syst Rev. 2021;10(1):101. doi:10.1186/s13643-021-01648-yPassioti M, Maggina P, Megremis S, Papadopoulos NG.The common cold: potential for future prevention or cure.Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2014;14(2):413. doi:10.1007/s11882-013-0413-5Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How infections spread.MedlinePlus.Strep throat.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Campylobacter(campylobacteriosis).Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.CDC yellow book 2024: sexually transmitted infections.van Seventer JM, Hochberg NS.Principles of infectious diseases: transmission, diagnosis, prevention, and control.International Encyclopedia of Public Health. 2017;22-39. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6Cortés Martínez J, Pak D, Abelenda-Alonso G, et al.SARS-Cov-2 incubation period according to vaccination status during the fifth COVID-19 wave in a tertiary-care center in Spain: a cohort study.BMC Infect Dis. 2022;22(1):828. doi:10.1186/s12879-022-07822-4Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis A.Ma Q, Liu J, Liu Q, et al.Global percentage of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections among the tested population and individuals with confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(12):e2137257. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.37257Parker N, Schneegurt M, Thi Tu A, Forster BM, Lister P.12.2: Characteristics and steps of infectious diseases. In: Case M., ed.Microbiology.LibreTests; 2023.Brosseau LM, Escandón K, Ulrich AK, et al.Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) dose, infection, and disease outcomes for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review.Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(1):e1195-e1201. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab903Ge Y, Martinez L, Sun S, et al.COVID-19 transmission dynamics among close contacts of index patients with COVID-19: A population-based cohort study in Zhejiang province, China.JAMA Intern Med. 2021;181(10):1343-1350. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.4686Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Respiratory virus guidance.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella) transmission.Whitley RJ, Hook EW.Shedding patterns of genital herpes simplex virus infections.JAMA. 2022;328(17):1710. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.18930Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis B frequently asked questions for the public.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) general information.Gunn JS, Marshall JM, Baker S, Dongol S, Charles RC, Ryan ET.Salmonella chronic carriage: epidemiology, diagnosis, and gallbladder persistence.Trends Microbiol. 2014;22(11):648-655. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2014.06.007
Zeng K, Santhya S, Soong A, et al.Serial intervals and incubation periods of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron and Delta variants,Singapore.Emerg Infect Dis. 2023;29(4):814-817. doi:10.3201/eid2904.220854
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Symptoms of COVID-19.
FoodSafety.gov.Bacteria and viruses.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How flu spreads.
Linton NM, Kobayashi T, Yang Y, et al.Incubation period and other epidemiological characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infections with right truncation: a statistical analysis of publicly available case data.J Clin Med. 2020;9(2):538. doi:10.3390/jcm9020538
Alene M, Yismaw L, Assemie MA, Ketema DB, Gietaneh W, Birhan TY.Serial interval and incubation period of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):257. doi:10.1186/s12879-021-05950-x
Grant R, Charmet T, Schaeffer L, et al.Impact of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant on incubation, transmission settings and vaccine effectiveness: results from a nationwide case-control study in France.Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2022;13:100278. doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100278
Jansen L, Tegomoh B, Lange K, et al.Investigation of a SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant Cluster - Nebraska, November-December 2021.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(5152):1782-1784. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm705152e3
Dhouib W, Maatoug J, Ayouni I, et al.The incubation period during the pandemic of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Syst Rev. 2021;10(1):101. doi:10.1186/s13643-021-01648-y
Passioti M, Maggina P, Megremis S, Papadopoulos NG.The common cold: potential for future prevention or cure.Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2014;14(2):413. doi:10.1007/s11882-013-0413-5
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.How infections spread.
MedlinePlus.Strep throat.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Campylobacter(campylobacteriosis).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.CDC yellow book 2024: sexually transmitted infections.
van Seventer JM, Hochberg NS.Principles of infectious diseases: transmission, diagnosis, prevention, and control.International Encyclopedia of Public Health. 2017;22-39. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6
Cortés Martínez J, Pak D, Abelenda-Alonso G, et al.SARS-Cov-2 incubation period according to vaccination status during the fifth COVID-19 wave in a tertiary-care center in Spain: a cohort study.BMC Infect Dis. 2022;22(1):828. doi:10.1186/s12879-022-07822-4
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis A.
Ma Q, Liu J, Liu Q, et al.Global percentage of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections among the tested population and individuals with confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(12):e2137257. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.37257
Parker N, Schneegurt M, Thi Tu A, Forster BM, Lister P.12.2: Characteristics and steps of infectious diseases. In: Case M., ed.Microbiology.LibreTests; 2023.
Brosseau LM, Escandón K, Ulrich AK, et al.Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) dose, infection, and disease outcomes for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review.Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75(1):e1195-e1201. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab903
Ge Y, Martinez L, Sun S, et al.COVID-19 transmission dynamics among close contacts of index patients with COVID-19: A population-based cohort study in Zhejiang province, China.JAMA Intern Med. 2021;181(10):1343-1350. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.4686
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Respiratory virus guidance.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Chickenpox (varicella) transmission.
Whitley RJ, Hook EW.Shedding patterns of genital herpes simplex virus infections.JAMA. 2022;328(17):1710. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.18930
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Hepatitis B frequently asked questions for the public.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) general information.
Gunn JS, Marshall JM, Baker S, Dongol S, Charles RC, Ryan ET.Salmonella chronic carriage: epidemiology, diagnosis, and gallbladder persistence.Trends Microbiol. 2014;22(11):648-655. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2014.06.007
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