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Table of Contents
Health Benefits
What to Eat
Nutrients in Fish
Drawbacks of a Pescatarian Diet
Apescatariandiet is essentially a vegetarian diet that includes fish and seafood. The term pescatarian is a blend of pesce (the Italian word for fish) and vegetarian. It is also sometimes referred to as pesco-vegetarian.
People choose a vegetarian or pescatarian diet for different reasons that may relate to ethical, environmental, or health considerations.
Adding fish and seafood to an otherwise vegetarian diet can help you get certain nutrients that are often difficult to get through a vegetarian diet alone.
This article reviews the pescatarian diet, its health benefits and limitations, and what pescatarians can eat.
Getty Images / miodrag ignjatovic
The pescatarian diet is a version of a vegetarian diet that allows for fish and shellfish.
Admittedly, not all vegetarian diets equate to healthy eating patterns. Some vegetarians may simply avoid meat products but still consume other processed foods or items high in fat and simple sugars as long as they are not made from animal products.
The pescatarian diet relies on whole, plant-based foods, vegetables, fruits, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and fish. These food categories are a staple for most eating patterns experts recommend for general health and disease prevention.
Though there is very little research on the health benefits of pescatarian diets, there is data on the health benefits of vegetarian diets and fish consumption.
A Word From VerywellA pescatarian diet is high in lean protein and heart-healthy fats, thanks to the inclusion of fish, while still offering the benefits of eating plant-based foods. Any diet that emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fish may provide health benefits. You might choose to follow a pescatarian diet to help manage a health condition such as heart disease or simply as an overall healthful diet.—ALLISON HERRIES, RDN, MEDICAL EXPERT BOARD
A Word From Verywell
A pescatarian diet is high in lean protein and heart-healthy fats, thanks to the inclusion of fish, while still offering the benefits of eating plant-based foods. Any diet that emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fish may provide health benefits. You might choose to follow a pescatarian diet to help manage a health condition such as heart disease or simply as an overall healthful diet.—ALLISON HERRIES, RDN, MEDICAL EXPERT BOARD
A pescatarian diet is high in lean protein and heart-healthy fats, thanks to the inclusion of fish, while still offering the benefits of eating plant-based foods. Any diet that emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fish may provide health benefits. You might choose to follow a pescatarian diet to help manage a health condition such as heart disease or simply as an overall healthful diet.
—ALLISON HERRIES, RDN, MEDICAL EXPERT BOARD
May Improve Heart Health
A pescatarian diet may improve heart health through weight loss, lowering your cholesterol, or mediating inflammation.
Vegetarian orvegan dietscan lower total andlow-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterollevels.Other studies have suggested that vegetarian and vegan diets can lower heart disease risk, but more studies are necessary to confirm these findings.
Several studies of available research on fish intake and heart health have found that higher fish intake is associated with lower heart disease incidence and mortality.
These heart-healthy benefits mainly come from eating fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, or herring.One study suggests that the benefit is lost if eating fried fish, which may increase cardiovascular events.
The American Heart Association and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend eating at least two servings of fatty fish per week.
May Benefit Metabolic Health
There is little consensus on the definition of metabolic health.However,metabolic syndromeis well defined as a group of conditions that increase your risk of diabetes, heart disease, and stroke.
Metabolic syndrome is defined as having three or more of the following:
There is no specific diet for metabolic syndrome. There is also no research specific to a pescatarian diet and metabolic syndrome.
However, many foods recommended in a pescatarian diet are considered beneficial for metabolic syndrome. For example, some studies have shown that eating more fish may lower the risk.
Available data suggests that vegetarian diets, compared to standard therapy, can improve:
However, the improvements were modest and not without bias in some of the studies. Further research is still necessary.
If you are concerned about your metabolic health or have metabolic syndrome, consult with a registered dietitian nutritionist (RD or RDN) to determine an individualized eating pattern that is best for you.
Could Help Manage Type 2 Diabetes
Guidelines for nutrition therapy in people with type 2 diabetes recommend several healthy eating patterns, including vegetarian,Mediterranean,Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH), andlow-fat diets. These diets can also help reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
These diets also may help with weight loss and reduce markers of increased disease risk (e.g., cholesterol levels).
Because a pescatarian diet is a relatively new regimen, there is not enough research to say it will have similar effects. Yet, the general principles of this diet are a blend of vegetarian and Mediterranean diets, two of the patterns mentioned as acceptable for people with type 2 diabetes.
Specific to fish, there has not been enough evidence to conclusively explain the effects of fatty fish on type 2 diabetes risk.However, higher fish intake has been associated with lower all-cause mortality in people with type 2 diabetes.
May Reduce the Risk of Some Cancers
There are few studies specific to pescatarian diets and cancer prevention. However, some research has shown that:
For overall health and cancer prevention, the American Cancer Society recommends an eating pattern that will:
Most of these recommendations are also recommendations for a pescatarian diet.
Possible Anti-Inflammatory Effects
Chronic inflammationcan progress as we age and become a leading contributor to diseases like heart disease, cancer, and diabetes.
There are markers of chronic inflammation. A blood level ofC-reactive protein (CRP)is probably the most popular.
Again, there are no studies specific to a pescatarian diet, but a vegan diet (compared to a meat-eating diet) can reduce CRP and fibrinogen levels.Addingomega-3 fatty acidsto the diet from eating fish could also contribute to anti-inflammatory properties.
Pescatarian Diet vs. Mediterranean DietSome may think the pescatarian diet is the same as the Mediterranean diet. Though they both include similar plant-based foods and fish, there are a few differences. For instance, the Mediterranean diet allows meat and poultry. It also emphasizes olive oil as a primary fat source.The Mediterranean diet also recommends:Plenty of fruits and vegetablesWhole grains with a high fiber contentFish to provide omega-3 fatty acidsLimiting saturated fat found in red meat and dairyLimiting simple carbs and added sugars
Pescatarian Diet vs. Mediterranean Diet
Some may think the pescatarian diet is the same as the Mediterranean diet. Though they both include similar plant-based foods and fish, there are a few differences. For instance, the Mediterranean diet allows meat and poultry. It also emphasizes olive oil as a primary fat source.The Mediterranean diet also recommends:Plenty of fruits and vegetablesWhole grains with a high fiber contentFish to provide omega-3 fatty acidsLimiting saturated fat found in red meat and dairyLimiting simple carbs and added sugars
Some may think the pescatarian diet is the same as the Mediterranean diet. Though they both include similar plant-based foods and fish, there are a few differences. For instance, the Mediterranean diet allows meat and poultry. It also emphasizes olive oil as a primary fat source.
The Mediterranean diet also recommends:
A pescatarian diet will include many plant-based foods, such as:
It will also include fish and seafood like:
People following vegetarian and pescatarian diets may also include eggs and dairy.
Nutritional Benefits of Adding Fish to an Otherwise Vegetarian Diet
Fish and seafood are excellent sources oflean protein, meaning they provide fewer calories and fat but a similar amount of protein to red meats.
They also provide a good amount of healthy fats such as omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are known to be anti-inflammatory.
The three main omega-3 fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Seafood and fish are excellent sources of EPA and DHA.
Consuming fish can help you meet your omega-3 fatty acid requirements if you follow an otherwise vegetarian diet. ALA is available from plant-based sources and then converted to EPA and DHA in the body but only in small amounts. Therefore, getting EPA and DHA from foods like fatty fish is recommended.
Omega-3 fatty acids from fish and seafood promote heart health and lower triglycerides. Some research (but not all) suggests eating fish and seafood may help:
Fatty fish that are rich in omega-3 fatty acids include:
Certain types of seafood may also be an excellent source of micronutrients. For example:
Like a vegetarian diet, getting enough of some of the nutrients that usually come from animal sources can prove challenging. This includes nutrients like iron, vitamin B12, zinc, calcium, and protein.
These nutrients are more available when following a pescatarian diet than a vegetarian or vegan diet but only with select types of fish and seafood. For pescatarians, consuming fish and seafood will add to their protein intake.
Moreover, those following a pescatarian diet will want to make sure they include the types of seafood that contain these necessary nutrients. These may include:
If you are not a fan of oysters and some of these other specific fish and seafood options, then you will want to pay attention to other good plant-based sources or discuss whether supplementation is advisable with your healthcare provider or RDN.
Another potential drawback of the pescatarian diet is the mercury content of fish. Avoiding the types of fish that have the highest mercury levels is best. These include:
Anyone with a fish or seafood allergy should avoid following a pescatarian diet.
Children and women who are pregnant or nursing should take caution when following a pescatarian diet. Pregnant and breastfeeding people should limit fish intake to two to three 4-ounce servings of low-mercury fish per week.Popular choices for these include sea bass, cod, salmon, and most shellfish.
Similarly, children should have two servings per week.Note that serving sizes differ depending on the child’s age.
Further information about the mercury content of particular types of fish and a table of good choices as opposed to fish to avoid are available from theU.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Summary
Eating fish is part of a healthy eating pattern. A pescatarian diet allows fish and seafood along with otherwise vegetarian eating habits. Fish are a great source of lean protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and several key vitamins and minerals.
Though a pescatarian diet offers several health benefits, it is not for everyone.
If you are following a pescatarian diet, make sure you get enough iron, vitamin B12, calcium, and zinc through plant-based foods and fish selection. You should also be familiar with the mercury content of fish and choose those that contain lower amounts of mercury.
Working with an RDN can help you determine the best pescatarian eating pattern for you.
33 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition. 2020.Koch CA, Kjeldsen EW, Frikke-Schmidt R.Vegetarian or vegan diets and blood lipids: a meta-analysis of randomized trials.Eur Heart J. 2023;44(28):2609-2622. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad211Gan ZH, Cheong HC, Tu YK, Kuo PH.Association between plant-based dietary patterns and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(11):3952. doi:10.3390/nu13113952Kaiser J, van Daalen KR, Thayyil A, et al.A systematic review of the association between vegan diets and risk of cardiovascular disease.J Nutr. 2021;151(6):1539-1552. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab037Dybvik JS, Svendsen M, Aune D.Vegetarian and vegan diets and the risk of cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease and stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Eur J Nutr. 2023;62(1):51-69. doi:10.1007/s00394-022-02942-8Jayedi A, Shab-Bidar S.Fish consumption and the risk of chronic disease: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies.Adv Nutr. 2020;11(5):1123-1133. doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa029Jiang L, Wang J, Xiong K, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2342. doi:10.3390/nu13072342Zhang B, Xiong K, Cai J, Ma A.Fish consumption and coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis.Nutrients. 2020;12(8):2278. Published 2020 Jul 29. doi:10.3390/nu12082278Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Lupoli R, et al.Relations between the consumption of fatty or lean fish and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Adv Nutr. 2022;13(5):1554-1565. doi:10.1093/advances/nmac006Krittanawong C, Isath A, Hahn J, et al.Fish consumption and cardiovascular health: a systematic review.Am J Med. 2021;134(6):713-720. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.12.017American Heart Association.Fish and omega-3 fatty acids.Lotta LA, Abbasi A, Sharp SJ, et al.Definitions of metabolic health and risk of future type 2 diabetes in BMI categories: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.Diabetes Care. 2015;38(11):2177-2187. doi:10.2337/dc15-1218National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.What is metabolic syndrome?Karimi G, Heidari Z, Firouzi S, Haghighatdoost F.A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between fish consumption and risk of metabolic syndrome.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;30(5):717-729. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2020.02.001Picasso MC, Lo-Tayraco JA, Ramos-Villanueva JM, et al.Effect of vegetarian diets on the presentation of metabolic syndrome or its components: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Nutr. 2019;38(3):1117-1132. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.05.021Wang T, Kroeger CM, Cassidy S, et al.Vegetarian dietary patterns and cardiometabolic risk in people with or at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(7):e2325658. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.25658Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, et al.Nutrition therapy for adults with diabetes or prediabetes: a consensus report.Diabetes Care. 2019;42(5):731-754. doi:10.2337/dci19-0014Namazi N, Brett NR, Bellissimo N, et al.The association between types of seafood intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Health Promot Perspect. 2019;9(3):164-173. doi:10.15171/hpp.2019.24Barbaresko J, Lang A, Szczerba E, et al.Dietary factors and all-cause mortality in individuals with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.Diabetes Care. 2023;46(2):469-477. doi:10.2337/dc22-1018Parra-Soto S, Ahumada D, Petermann-Rocha F, et al.Association of meat, vegetarian, pescatarian and fish-poultry diets with risk of 19 cancer sites and all cancer: findings from the UK Biobank prospective cohort study and meta-analysis.BMC Med. 2022;20(1):79. doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02257-9Bai T, Peng J, Zhu X, Wu C.Vegetarian diets and the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a meta-analysis of observational studies.Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;35(11):1244-1252. doi:10.1097/MEG.0000000000002643Zhao Y, Zhan J, Wang Y, Wang D.The relationship between plant-based diet and risk of digestive system cancers: a meta-analysis based on 3,059,009 subjects.Front Public Health. 2022;10:892153. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.892153Molina-Montes E, Ubago-Guisado E, Petrova D, et al.The role of diet, alcohol, BMI, and physical activity in cancer mortality: summary findings of the EPIC study.Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4293. doi:10.3390/nu13124293Rock CL, Thomson C, Gansler T, et al. (2020),American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention. CA A Cancer J Clin, 70: 245-271.https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21591Menzel J, Jabakhanji A, Biemann R, et al.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers.Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):21736. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78426-8Craddock JC, Neale EP, Peoples GE, Probst YC.Vegetarian-based dietary patterns and their relation with inflammatory and immune biomarkers: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Adv Nutr. 2019;10(3):433-451. doi:10.1093/advances/nmy103American Heart Association.What is the Mediterranean diet?National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Calcium.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Zinc.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Iron. June 2023.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.
33 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition. 2020.Koch CA, Kjeldsen EW, Frikke-Schmidt R.Vegetarian or vegan diets and blood lipids: a meta-analysis of randomized trials.Eur Heart J. 2023;44(28):2609-2622. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad211Gan ZH, Cheong HC, Tu YK, Kuo PH.Association between plant-based dietary patterns and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(11):3952. doi:10.3390/nu13113952Kaiser J, van Daalen KR, Thayyil A, et al.A systematic review of the association between vegan diets and risk of cardiovascular disease.J Nutr. 2021;151(6):1539-1552. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab037Dybvik JS, Svendsen M, Aune D.Vegetarian and vegan diets and the risk of cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease and stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Eur J Nutr. 2023;62(1):51-69. doi:10.1007/s00394-022-02942-8Jayedi A, Shab-Bidar S.Fish consumption and the risk of chronic disease: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies.Adv Nutr. 2020;11(5):1123-1133. doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa029Jiang L, Wang J, Xiong K, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2342. doi:10.3390/nu13072342Zhang B, Xiong K, Cai J, Ma A.Fish consumption and coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis.Nutrients. 2020;12(8):2278. Published 2020 Jul 29. doi:10.3390/nu12082278Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Lupoli R, et al.Relations between the consumption of fatty or lean fish and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Adv Nutr. 2022;13(5):1554-1565. doi:10.1093/advances/nmac006Krittanawong C, Isath A, Hahn J, et al.Fish consumption and cardiovascular health: a systematic review.Am J Med. 2021;134(6):713-720. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.12.017American Heart Association.Fish and omega-3 fatty acids.Lotta LA, Abbasi A, Sharp SJ, et al.Definitions of metabolic health and risk of future type 2 diabetes in BMI categories: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.Diabetes Care. 2015;38(11):2177-2187. doi:10.2337/dc15-1218National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.What is metabolic syndrome?Karimi G, Heidari Z, Firouzi S, Haghighatdoost F.A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between fish consumption and risk of metabolic syndrome.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;30(5):717-729. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2020.02.001Picasso MC, Lo-Tayraco JA, Ramos-Villanueva JM, et al.Effect of vegetarian diets on the presentation of metabolic syndrome or its components: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Nutr. 2019;38(3):1117-1132. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.05.021Wang T, Kroeger CM, Cassidy S, et al.Vegetarian dietary patterns and cardiometabolic risk in people with or at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(7):e2325658. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.25658Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, et al.Nutrition therapy for adults with diabetes or prediabetes: a consensus report.Diabetes Care. 2019;42(5):731-754. doi:10.2337/dci19-0014Namazi N, Brett NR, Bellissimo N, et al.The association between types of seafood intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Health Promot Perspect. 2019;9(3):164-173. doi:10.15171/hpp.2019.24Barbaresko J, Lang A, Szczerba E, et al.Dietary factors and all-cause mortality in individuals with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.Diabetes Care. 2023;46(2):469-477. doi:10.2337/dc22-1018Parra-Soto S, Ahumada D, Petermann-Rocha F, et al.Association of meat, vegetarian, pescatarian and fish-poultry diets with risk of 19 cancer sites and all cancer: findings from the UK Biobank prospective cohort study and meta-analysis.BMC Med. 2022;20(1):79. doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02257-9Bai T, Peng J, Zhu X, Wu C.Vegetarian diets and the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a meta-analysis of observational studies.Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;35(11):1244-1252. doi:10.1097/MEG.0000000000002643Zhao Y, Zhan J, Wang Y, Wang D.The relationship between plant-based diet and risk of digestive system cancers: a meta-analysis based on 3,059,009 subjects.Front Public Health. 2022;10:892153. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.892153Molina-Montes E, Ubago-Guisado E, Petrova D, et al.The role of diet, alcohol, BMI, and physical activity in cancer mortality: summary findings of the EPIC study.Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4293. doi:10.3390/nu13124293Rock CL, Thomson C, Gansler T, et al. (2020),American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention. CA A Cancer J Clin, 70: 245-271.https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21591Menzel J, Jabakhanji A, Biemann R, et al.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers.Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):21736. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78426-8Craddock JC, Neale EP, Peoples GE, Probst YC.Vegetarian-based dietary patterns and their relation with inflammatory and immune biomarkers: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Adv Nutr. 2019;10(3):433-451. doi:10.1093/advances/nmy103American Heart Association.What is the Mediterranean diet?National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Calcium.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Zinc.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Iron. June 2023.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition. 2020.Koch CA, Kjeldsen EW, Frikke-Schmidt R.Vegetarian or vegan diets and blood lipids: a meta-analysis of randomized trials.Eur Heart J. 2023;44(28):2609-2622. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad211Gan ZH, Cheong HC, Tu YK, Kuo PH.Association between plant-based dietary patterns and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(11):3952. doi:10.3390/nu13113952Kaiser J, van Daalen KR, Thayyil A, et al.A systematic review of the association between vegan diets and risk of cardiovascular disease.J Nutr. 2021;151(6):1539-1552. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab037Dybvik JS, Svendsen M, Aune D.Vegetarian and vegan diets and the risk of cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease and stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Eur J Nutr. 2023;62(1):51-69. doi:10.1007/s00394-022-02942-8Jayedi A, Shab-Bidar S.Fish consumption and the risk of chronic disease: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies.Adv Nutr. 2020;11(5):1123-1133. doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa029Jiang L, Wang J, Xiong K, et al.Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease mortality: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(7):2342. doi:10.3390/nu13072342Zhang B, Xiong K, Cai J, Ma A.Fish consumption and coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis.Nutrients. 2020;12(8):2278. Published 2020 Jul 29. doi:10.3390/nu12082278Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Lupoli R, et al.Relations between the consumption of fatty or lean fish and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Adv Nutr. 2022;13(5):1554-1565. doi:10.1093/advances/nmac006Krittanawong C, Isath A, Hahn J, et al.Fish consumption and cardiovascular health: a systematic review.Am J Med. 2021;134(6):713-720. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.12.017American Heart Association.Fish and omega-3 fatty acids.Lotta LA, Abbasi A, Sharp SJ, et al.Definitions of metabolic health and risk of future type 2 diabetes in BMI categories: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.Diabetes Care. 2015;38(11):2177-2187. doi:10.2337/dc15-1218National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.What is metabolic syndrome?Karimi G, Heidari Z, Firouzi S, Haghighatdoost F.A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between fish consumption and risk of metabolic syndrome.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;30(5):717-729. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2020.02.001Picasso MC, Lo-Tayraco JA, Ramos-Villanueva JM, et al.Effect of vegetarian diets on the presentation of metabolic syndrome or its components: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Nutr. 2019;38(3):1117-1132. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.05.021Wang T, Kroeger CM, Cassidy S, et al.Vegetarian dietary patterns and cardiometabolic risk in people with or at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(7):e2325658. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.25658Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, et al.Nutrition therapy for adults with diabetes or prediabetes: a consensus report.Diabetes Care. 2019;42(5):731-754. doi:10.2337/dci19-0014Namazi N, Brett NR, Bellissimo N, et al.The association between types of seafood intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Health Promot Perspect. 2019;9(3):164-173. doi:10.15171/hpp.2019.24Barbaresko J, Lang A, Szczerba E, et al.Dietary factors and all-cause mortality in individuals with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies.Diabetes Care. 2023;46(2):469-477. doi:10.2337/dc22-1018Parra-Soto S, Ahumada D, Petermann-Rocha F, et al.Association of meat, vegetarian, pescatarian and fish-poultry diets with risk of 19 cancer sites and all cancer: findings from the UK Biobank prospective cohort study and meta-analysis.BMC Med. 2022;20(1):79. doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02257-9Bai T, Peng J, Zhu X, Wu C.Vegetarian diets and the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a meta-analysis of observational studies.Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023;35(11):1244-1252. doi:10.1097/MEG.0000000000002643Zhao Y, Zhan J, Wang Y, Wang D.The relationship between plant-based diet and risk of digestive system cancers: a meta-analysis based on 3,059,009 subjects.Front Public Health. 2022;10:892153. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.892153Molina-Montes E, Ubago-Guisado E, Petrova D, et al.The role of diet, alcohol, BMI, and physical activity in cancer mortality: summary findings of the EPIC study.Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4293. doi:10.3390/nu13124293Rock CL, Thomson C, Gansler T, et al. (2020),American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention. CA A Cancer J Clin, 70: 245-271.https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21591Menzel J, Jabakhanji A, Biemann R, et al.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers.Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):21736. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78426-8Craddock JC, Neale EP, Peoples GE, Probst YC.Vegetarian-based dietary patterns and their relation with inflammatory and immune biomarkers: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Adv Nutr. 2019;10(3):433-451. doi:10.1093/advances/nmy103American Heart Association.What is the Mediterranean diet?National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Calcium.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Zinc.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12.National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Iron. June 2023.U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.
U.S. Department of Agriculture.Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition. 2020.
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Gan ZH, Cheong HC, Tu YK, Kuo PH.Association between plant-based dietary patterns and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.Nutrients. 2021;13(11):3952. doi:10.3390/nu13113952
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American Heart Association.What is the Mediterranean diet?
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Omega-3 fatty acids.
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Calcium.
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Zinc.
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Vitamin B12.
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.Iron. June 2023.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Advice about eating fish.
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