What Is a Psychopath?

Psychopathy is a mental disorder causing a person to lack empathy. Learn the traits and the difference between a psychopath and sociopath.

January 17, 2025 · 14 min · 2912 words · Matthew Marsh

Table of Contents

Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsWhat Is a Psychopath?PrevalenceSociopath vs. PsychopathSignsCausesRisk FactorsDiagnosisTreatment

Table of ContentsView All

View All

Table of Contents

What Is a Psychopath?

Prevalence

Sociopath vs. Psychopath

Signs

Causes

Risk Factors

Diagnosis

Treatment

The term “psychopath” refers to someone who does not follow the moral norms of their society and lacksempathyand remorse. People displaying psychopathy are callous, manipulative, and deceitful. They often commit acts of violence, theft, or fraud to get others to do what they want.

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Woman at therapy group

Read on to learn more about psychopathy, including traits, signs, and the differences between a psychopath and a sociopath.

Is Psychopath a Clinical Diagnosis?

Researchers use the term “psychopath” to describe a person who exhibits consistently callous and unemotional behavior. A person displaying psychopathy lacks empathy, shame, and remorse, which leads them to consistently violate the rights and well-being of others. They may lie, cheat, or steal to get their way.

There is no single known cause of psychopathy. Genetics, trauma,brain structure, exposure to violence during childhood, and environmental conditions are possible contributing factors.

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Prevalence of Psychopathy

Research suggests that the rate of psychopathy in the general population is about 1.2%. Men are significantly more likely than women to exhibit psychopathic traits.

People with psychopathic traits appear in all walks of life. Many are highly successful CEOs, surgeons, salespeople, or managers.However, they are also highly overrepresented in the criminal justice system. Estimates suggest that up to 25% of prisoners would be characterized as psychopaths. Among violent offenders, the rate of psychopathy is even higher.

Although psychopathy is not a clinical diagnosis, it shares many traits with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). People with ASPD are sometimes referred to associopaths, and some researchers use the terms “sociopath” and “psychopath” interchangeably.ASPD was even called psychopathic personality in an earlier version of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

Antisocial personality disorder is a long-lasting mental health condition that involves a reckless disregard for one’s own safety and the safety of others.

Both people displaying psychopathy and people with ASPD lack empathy for others and remorse for their actions. They are both often willing to manipulate and exploit others (throughlying, cheating, stealing, or violence, for example) to get what they want.However, only about a third of people with ASPD would be characterized as having psychopathy.

Unlike most people with ASPD, people displaying psychopathy are also prone to vanity, arrogance, fearlessness, and an excessive need for praise and admiration. People with ASPD are more likely to be chronically irresponsible, often neglecting their duties at work or school.

What is a narcissistic sociopath?Narcissistic psychopathy is not an official clinical diagnosis in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition(DSM-5). However, some people have psychopathic traits—such as callousness and manipulativeness—and traits associated with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), such as extreme entitlement and self-centeredness. Both people with narcissism and people with psychopathy lack empathy and remorse. Both can be superficially charming and may use deceit, violence, and other antisocial means to get what they want.

What is a narcissistic sociopath?

Narcissistic psychopathy is not an official clinical diagnosis in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition(DSM-5). However, some people have psychopathic traits—such as callousness and manipulativeness—and traits associated with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), such as extreme entitlement and self-centeredness. Both people with narcissism and people with psychopathy lack empathy and remorse. Both can be superficially charming and may use deceit, violence, and other antisocial means to get what they want.

Most people displaying psychopathy begin to exhibit antisocial traits during childhood, often before age 10. However, someone can develop psychopathic traits later.

Some of the personality traits and tendencies associated with psychopathy include:

There is no single known cause of psychopathy. Researchers have identified several possible contributing factors, including:

How can you best communicate with a psychopath?

Anyone from any background can show traits of psychopathy. However, the following risk factors increase the likelihood that someone will develop psychopathic traits:

Conduct Disorder and PsychopathyChildren and adolescents who are diagnosed with conduct disorder (CD)—a condition that involves a pattern of disruptive, aggressive, and/or violent behavior—are more likely to develop ASPD or psychopathy later in life.

Conduct Disorder and Psychopathy

Children and adolescents who are diagnosed with conduct disorder (CD)—a condition that involves a pattern of disruptive, aggressive, and/or violent behavior—are more likely to develop ASPD or psychopathy later in life.

What Is Conduct Disorder?

Forensic psychologistsoften use the PCL-R in criminal settings to determine a sexually violent offender’s risk of recidivism (the likelihood that they will re-offend and pose an ongoing danger to others).

Psychopathy is broadly described as a cluster B personality disorder. Other cluster B personality disorders include:Borderline personality disorderHistrionic personality disorderNarcissistic personality disorder

Psychopathy is broadly described as a cluster B personality disorder. Other cluster B personality disorders include:

Not many evidence-based treatments are currently available.Instead, most treatment approaches for psychopathy are focused on reducing the potential for violence, criminal behavior, and other harm.

Recent research suggests that the following psychopathy treatment methods may be helpful:

Summary

Researchers use the term “psychopath” to describe someone who is callous, unemotional, and manipulative. They lack empathy and remorse and often exploit others to get what they want. In many cases, they are also superficially charming. They are often prone to criminal behavior, including theft, fraud, and violence.

Research about effective treatments for psychopathy is ongoing. Behavioral therapy, early intervention programs, and certain kinds of psychotherapy have shown promise in reducing the harmful effects of psychopathic traits.

22 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Reidy DE, Kearns MC, DeGue S, Lilienfeld SO, Massetti G, Kiehl KA.Why psychopathy matters: implications for public health and violence prevention.Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;24:214-225. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.018Werner KB, Few LR, Bucholz KK.Epidemiology, comorbidity, and behavioral genetics of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy.Psychiatr Ann. 2015;45(4):195-199. doi:10.3928/00485713-20150401-08Sanz-García A, Gesteira C, Sanz J, García-Vera MP.Prevalence of psychopathy in the general adult population: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Front Psychol. 2021;12:661044. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661044American Psychological Association.Antisocial personality disorder.Abdalla-Filho E, Völlm B.Does every psychopath have an antisocial personality disorder?Braz J Psychiatry. 2020;42(3):241-242. doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2019-0762Wu W, Wang H, Zheng C, Wu YJ.Effect of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism on entrepreneurial intention-the mediating of entrepreneurial self-efficacy.Front Psychol. 2019;10:360. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00360de Ruiter C, Burghart M, De Silva R, et al.A meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment in relation to psychopathic traits.PLoS One. 2022;17(8):e0272704. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272704Frazier A, Ferreira PA, Gonzales JE.Born this way? A review of neurobiological and environmental evidence for the etiology of psychopathy.Personal Neurosci. 2019;2:e8. doi:10.1017/pen.2019.7Benning SD, Molina SM, Dowgwillo EA, Patrick CJ, Miller KF, Storrow AB.Psychopathy in the medical emergency department.J Pers Disord. 2018;32(4):482-496. doi:10.1521/pedi_2017_31_308Carroll GA, Cohen LR, McParland A, Jack S, Montrose VT.Individuals with psychopathic traits and poor attitudes towards animals can recognise infant features but give them reduced attentional priority.Animals (Basel). 2020;10(4):721. doi:10.3390/ani10040721Weiss B, Lavner JA, Miller JD.Self- and partner-reported psychopathic traits' relations with couples' communication, marital satisfaction trajectories, and divorce in a longitudinal sample.Personal Disord. 2018;9(3):239-249. doi:10.1037/per0000233Nummenmaa L, Lukkarinen L, Sun L, et al.Brain basis of psychopathy in criminal offenders and general population.Cereb Cortex. 2021;31(9):4104-4114. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab072Ireland JL, Mann S, Lewis M, Ozanne R, McNeill K, Ireland CA.Psychopathy and trauma: exploring a potential association.Int J Law Psychiatry. 2020;69:101543. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101543Crossley L, Woodworth M, Black PJ, Hare R.The dark side of negotiation: examining the outcomes of face-to-face and computer-mediated negotiations among dark personalities.Pers Individ Differ.2016;91:47-51. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.052Glenn AL.Early life predictors of callous-unemotional and psychopathic traits.Infant Ment Health J. 2019;40(1):39-53. doi:10.1002/imhj.21757Pisano S, Muratori P, Gorga C, et al.Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits.Ital J Pediatr. 2017;43(1):84. doi:10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6Boccaccini MT, Chevalier CS, Murrie DC, Varela JG.Psychopathy Checklist-Revised use and reporting practices in sexually violent predator evaluations.Sex Abuse. 2017;29(6):592-614. doi:10.1177/1079063215612443Wong SC, Olver ME.Risk reduction treatment of psychopathy and applications to mentally disordered offenders.CNS Spectr. 2015;20(3):303-310. doi:10.1017/S1092852915000322Matthys W, Schutter DJLG.Moral thinking and empathy in cognitive behavioral therapy for children and adolescents with conduct problems: a narrative review.Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2023;26(2):401-415. doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00429-4Bernstein DP, Keulen-de Vos M, Clercx M, et al.Schema therapy for violent PD offenders: a randomized clinical trial.Psychol Med. 2021;1-15. doi:10.1017/S0033291721001161Thylstrup B, Schrøder S, Hesse M.Psycho-education for substance use and antisocial personality disorder: a randomized trial.BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:283. doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0661-0Golubchik P, Levy T, Weizman A.The effect of methylphenidate treatment on psychopathic behavior of patients having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional defiant disorder.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2018;33(6):330-333. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000231

22 Sources

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.Reidy DE, Kearns MC, DeGue S, Lilienfeld SO, Massetti G, Kiehl KA.Why psychopathy matters: implications for public health and violence prevention.Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;24:214-225. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.018Werner KB, Few LR, Bucholz KK.Epidemiology, comorbidity, and behavioral genetics of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy.Psychiatr Ann. 2015;45(4):195-199. doi:10.3928/00485713-20150401-08Sanz-García A, Gesteira C, Sanz J, García-Vera MP.Prevalence of psychopathy in the general adult population: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Front Psychol. 2021;12:661044. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661044American Psychological Association.Antisocial personality disorder.Abdalla-Filho E, Völlm B.Does every psychopath have an antisocial personality disorder?Braz J Psychiatry. 2020;42(3):241-242. doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2019-0762Wu W, Wang H, Zheng C, Wu YJ.Effect of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism on entrepreneurial intention-the mediating of entrepreneurial self-efficacy.Front Psychol. 2019;10:360. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00360de Ruiter C, Burghart M, De Silva R, et al.A meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment in relation to psychopathic traits.PLoS One. 2022;17(8):e0272704. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272704Frazier A, Ferreira PA, Gonzales JE.Born this way? A review of neurobiological and environmental evidence for the etiology of psychopathy.Personal Neurosci. 2019;2:e8. doi:10.1017/pen.2019.7Benning SD, Molina SM, Dowgwillo EA, Patrick CJ, Miller KF, Storrow AB.Psychopathy in the medical emergency department.J Pers Disord. 2018;32(4):482-496. doi:10.1521/pedi_2017_31_308Carroll GA, Cohen LR, McParland A, Jack S, Montrose VT.Individuals with psychopathic traits and poor attitudes towards animals can recognise infant features but give them reduced attentional priority.Animals (Basel). 2020;10(4):721. doi:10.3390/ani10040721Weiss B, Lavner JA, Miller JD.Self- and partner-reported psychopathic traits' relations with couples' communication, marital satisfaction trajectories, and divorce in a longitudinal sample.Personal Disord. 2018;9(3):239-249. doi:10.1037/per0000233Nummenmaa L, Lukkarinen L, Sun L, et al.Brain basis of psychopathy in criminal offenders and general population.Cereb Cortex. 2021;31(9):4104-4114. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab072Ireland JL, Mann S, Lewis M, Ozanne R, McNeill K, Ireland CA.Psychopathy and trauma: exploring a potential association.Int J Law Psychiatry. 2020;69:101543. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101543Crossley L, Woodworth M, Black PJ, Hare R.The dark side of negotiation: examining the outcomes of face-to-face and computer-mediated negotiations among dark personalities.Pers Individ Differ.2016;91:47-51. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.052Glenn AL.Early life predictors of callous-unemotional and psychopathic traits.Infant Ment Health J. 2019;40(1):39-53. doi:10.1002/imhj.21757Pisano S, Muratori P, Gorga C, et al.Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits.Ital J Pediatr. 2017;43(1):84. doi:10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6Boccaccini MT, Chevalier CS, Murrie DC, Varela JG.Psychopathy Checklist-Revised use and reporting practices in sexually violent predator evaluations.Sex Abuse. 2017;29(6):592-614. doi:10.1177/1079063215612443Wong SC, Olver ME.Risk reduction treatment of psychopathy and applications to mentally disordered offenders.CNS Spectr. 2015;20(3):303-310. doi:10.1017/S1092852915000322Matthys W, Schutter DJLG.Moral thinking and empathy in cognitive behavioral therapy for children and adolescents with conduct problems: a narrative review.Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2023;26(2):401-415. doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00429-4Bernstein DP, Keulen-de Vos M, Clercx M, et al.Schema therapy for violent PD offenders: a randomized clinical trial.Psychol Med. 2021;1-15. doi:10.1017/S0033291721001161Thylstrup B, Schrøder S, Hesse M.Psycho-education for substance use and antisocial personality disorder: a randomized trial.BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:283. doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0661-0Golubchik P, Levy T, Weizman A.The effect of methylphenidate treatment on psychopathic behavior of patients having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional defiant disorder.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2018;33(6):330-333. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000231

Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.

Reidy DE, Kearns MC, DeGue S, Lilienfeld SO, Massetti G, Kiehl KA.Why psychopathy matters: implications for public health and violence prevention.Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;24:214-225. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.018Werner KB, Few LR, Bucholz KK.Epidemiology, comorbidity, and behavioral genetics of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy.Psychiatr Ann. 2015;45(4):195-199. doi:10.3928/00485713-20150401-08Sanz-García A, Gesteira C, Sanz J, García-Vera MP.Prevalence of psychopathy in the general adult population: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Front Psychol. 2021;12:661044. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661044American Psychological Association.Antisocial personality disorder.Abdalla-Filho E, Völlm B.Does every psychopath have an antisocial personality disorder?Braz J Psychiatry. 2020;42(3):241-242. doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2019-0762Wu W, Wang H, Zheng C, Wu YJ.Effect of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism on entrepreneurial intention-the mediating of entrepreneurial self-efficacy.Front Psychol. 2019;10:360. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00360de Ruiter C, Burghart M, De Silva R, et al.A meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment in relation to psychopathic traits.PLoS One. 2022;17(8):e0272704. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272704Frazier A, Ferreira PA, Gonzales JE.Born this way? A review of neurobiological and environmental evidence for the etiology of psychopathy.Personal Neurosci. 2019;2:e8. doi:10.1017/pen.2019.7Benning SD, Molina SM, Dowgwillo EA, Patrick CJ, Miller KF, Storrow AB.Psychopathy in the medical emergency department.J Pers Disord. 2018;32(4):482-496. doi:10.1521/pedi_2017_31_308Carroll GA, Cohen LR, McParland A, Jack S, Montrose VT.Individuals with psychopathic traits and poor attitudes towards animals can recognise infant features but give them reduced attentional priority.Animals (Basel). 2020;10(4):721. doi:10.3390/ani10040721Weiss B, Lavner JA, Miller JD.Self- and partner-reported psychopathic traits' relations with couples' communication, marital satisfaction trajectories, and divorce in a longitudinal sample.Personal Disord. 2018;9(3):239-249. doi:10.1037/per0000233Nummenmaa L, Lukkarinen L, Sun L, et al.Brain basis of psychopathy in criminal offenders and general population.Cereb Cortex. 2021;31(9):4104-4114. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab072Ireland JL, Mann S, Lewis M, Ozanne R, McNeill K, Ireland CA.Psychopathy and trauma: exploring a potential association.Int J Law Psychiatry. 2020;69:101543. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101543Crossley L, Woodworth M, Black PJ, Hare R.The dark side of negotiation: examining the outcomes of face-to-face and computer-mediated negotiations among dark personalities.Pers Individ Differ.2016;91:47-51. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.052Glenn AL.Early life predictors of callous-unemotional and psychopathic traits.Infant Ment Health J. 2019;40(1):39-53. doi:10.1002/imhj.21757Pisano S, Muratori P, Gorga C, et al.Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits.Ital J Pediatr. 2017;43(1):84. doi:10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6Boccaccini MT, Chevalier CS, Murrie DC, Varela JG.Psychopathy Checklist-Revised use and reporting practices in sexually violent predator evaluations.Sex Abuse. 2017;29(6):592-614. doi:10.1177/1079063215612443Wong SC, Olver ME.Risk reduction treatment of psychopathy and applications to mentally disordered offenders.CNS Spectr. 2015;20(3):303-310. doi:10.1017/S1092852915000322Matthys W, Schutter DJLG.Moral thinking and empathy in cognitive behavioral therapy for children and adolescents with conduct problems: a narrative review.Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2023;26(2):401-415. doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00429-4Bernstein DP, Keulen-de Vos M, Clercx M, et al.Schema therapy for violent PD offenders: a randomized clinical trial.Psychol Med. 2021;1-15. doi:10.1017/S0033291721001161Thylstrup B, Schrøder S, Hesse M.Psycho-education for substance use and antisocial personality disorder: a randomized trial.BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:283. doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0661-0Golubchik P, Levy T, Weizman A.The effect of methylphenidate treatment on psychopathic behavior of patients having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional defiant disorder.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2018;33(6):330-333. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000231

Reidy DE, Kearns MC, DeGue S, Lilienfeld SO, Massetti G, Kiehl KA.Why psychopathy matters: implications for public health and violence prevention.Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;24:214-225. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.018

Werner KB, Few LR, Bucholz KK.Epidemiology, comorbidity, and behavioral genetics of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy.Psychiatr Ann. 2015;45(4):195-199. doi:10.3928/00485713-20150401-08

Sanz-García A, Gesteira C, Sanz J, García-Vera MP.Prevalence of psychopathy in the general adult population: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Front Psychol. 2021;12:661044. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661044

American Psychological Association.Antisocial personality disorder.

Abdalla-Filho E, Völlm B.Does every psychopath have an antisocial personality disorder?Braz J Psychiatry. 2020;42(3):241-242. doi:10.1590/1516-4446-2019-0762

Wu W, Wang H, Zheng C, Wu YJ.Effect of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism on entrepreneurial intention-the mediating of entrepreneurial self-efficacy.Front Psychol. 2019;10:360. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00360

de Ruiter C, Burghart M, De Silva R, et al.A meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment in relation to psychopathic traits.PLoS One. 2022;17(8):e0272704. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272704

Frazier A, Ferreira PA, Gonzales JE.Born this way? A review of neurobiological and environmental evidence for the etiology of psychopathy.Personal Neurosci. 2019;2:e8. doi:10.1017/pen.2019.7

Benning SD, Molina SM, Dowgwillo EA, Patrick CJ, Miller KF, Storrow AB.Psychopathy in the medical emergency department.J Pers Disord. 2018;32(4):482-496. doi:10.1521/pedi_2017_31_308

Carroll GA, Cohen LR, McParland A, Jack S, Montrose VT.Individuals with psychopathic traits and poor attitudes towards animals can recognise infant features but give them reduced attentional priority.Animals (Basel). 2020;10(4):721. doi:10.3390/ani10040721

Weiss B, Lavner JA, Miller JD.Self- and partner-reported psychopathic traits' relations with couples' communication, marital satisfaction trajectories, and divorce in a longitudinal sample.Personal Disord. 2018;9(3):239-249. doi:10.1037/per0000233

Nummenmaa L, Lukkarinen L, Sun L, et al.Brain basis of psychopathy in criminal offenders and general population.Cereb Cortex. 2021;31(9):4104-4114. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab072

Ireland JL, Mann S, Lewis M, Ozanne R, McNeill K, Ireland CA.Psychopathy and trauma: exploring a potential association.Int J Law Psychiatry. 2020;69:101543. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101543

Crossley L, Woodworth M, Black PJ, Hare R.The dark side of negotiation: examining the outcomes of face-to-face and computer-mediated negotiations among dark personalities.Pers Individ Differ.2016;91:47-51. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.052

Glenn AL.Early life predictors of callous-unemotional and psychopathic traits.Infant Ment Health J. 2019;40(1):39-53. doi:10.1002/imhj.21757

Pisano S, Muratori P, Gorga C, et al.Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits.Ital J Pediatr. 2017;43(1):84. doi:10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6

Boccaccini MT, Chevalier CS, Murrie DC, Varela JG.Psychopathy Checklist-Revised use and reporting practices in sexually violent predator evaluations.Sex Abuse. 2017;29(6):592-614. doi:10.1177/1079063215612443

Wong SC, Olver ME.Risk reduction treatment of psychopathy and applications to mentally disordered offenders.CNS Spectr. 2015;20(3):303-310. doi:10.1017/S1092852915000322

Matthys W, Schutter DJLG.Moral thinking and empathy in cognitive behavioral therapy for children and adolescents with conduct problems: a narrative review.Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2023;26(2):401-415. doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00429-4

Bernstein DP, Keulen-de Vos M, Clercx M, et al.Schema therapy for violent PD offenders: a randomized clinical trial.Psychol Med. 2021;1-15. doi:10.1017/S0033291721001161

Thylstrup B, Schrøder S, Hesse M.Psycho-education for substance use and antisocial personality disorder: a randomized trial.BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:283. doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0661-0

Golubchik P, Levy T, Weizman A.The effect of methylphenidate treatment on psychopathic behavior of patients having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional defiant disorder.Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2018;33(6):330-333. doi:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000231

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