Table of ContentsView AllTable of ContentsAlbuminCauses of HypoalbuminemiaSymptoms of Low AlbuminDiagnosisTreatmentFoodsComplicationsOutlook
Table of ContentsView All
View All
Table of Contents
Albumin
Causes of Hypoalbuminemia
Symptoms of Low Albumin
Diagnosis
Treatment
Foods
Complications
Outlook
Hypoalbuminemiais a bloodalbuminlevel of less than 3.5 grams per deciliter (g/dL). It often occurs as a result of a serious underlying medical condition, such as kidney, liver, or heart failure.
Albumin is the most abundant protein in the bloodstream. It plays several vital roles, including preventing fluid from leaking out of blood vessels and serving various anti-inflammatory functions.
Low albumin levels cause swelling due to fluid buildup in the tissues. Low levels are associated with generalized weakness, low muscle mass, and increased inflammation.
This article will discuss hypoalbuminemia, including its symptoms, causes, diagnosis, and management. It will also explore the possible complications of a low albumin level and what it may mean regarding medical outcomes.
JulieAlexK / Getty Images.
What Is Albumin and How Does It Relate to Hypoalbuminemia?
Albumin plays a diverse role in the body. It’s responsible for the following functions:
When albumin levels are low—which is defined as less than 3.5 mg/dL—the above functions are negatively impacted, resulting in potentially serious symptoms and complications.
Hypoalbuminemia is found frequently in people with acute or chronic medical conditions, especially those who are hospitalized.
The following health conditions or scenarios may cause hypoalbuminemia:
What Are the Symptoms of Low Albumin?
The primary symptom of hypoalbuminemia is swelling, callededema, which results from fluid leaking out of blood vessels into surrounding tissues.
Edema may occur in the feet, ankles, hands, around the eyes, lower back, abdomen, genitalia, or lungs. It can also be generalized—what’s known asanasarca.
Other common symptoms of low albumin include unusual tiredness and generalized weakness.
Individuals with low blood albumin levels can also experience symptoms and signs related to the underlying cause.
For example, hypoalbuminemia fromnephrotic syndromecauses profound fluid-related weight gain, foamy urine, trouble breathing with activity, and high blood pressure.
Likewise, withcirrhosis, besides fluid buildup in the abdomen (ascites), people may experiencejaundice(yellowing of skin and eyes), discomfort in the upper right area of the abdomen, loss of appetite, and confusion.
Other notable symptoms include diarrhea in individuals withprotein-losing enteropathyand a remarkably distended belly inkwashiorkor.
How Hypoalbuminemia Is Diagnosed
Analbumin blood testand acomprehensive metabolic panel (CMP)can detect a low albumin level.
The advantage of a CMP is that it provides an overview of how well a person’s kidneys and liver work in addition to measuring albumin levels.
What Does a CMP Measure?A CMP measuresalbumin, total protein, bilirubin,liver enzymes, calcium, blood glucose (sugar), sodium, potassium, carbon dioxide, chloride,blood urea nitrogen (BUN), andcreatinine.
What Does a CMP Measure?
A CMP measuresalbumin, total protein, bilirubin,liver enzymes, calcium, blood glucose (sugar), sodium, potassium, carbon dioxide, chloride,blood urea nitrogen (BUN), andcreatinine.
When hypoalbuminemia is diagnosed, a healthcare provider can order additional tests to uncover the cause of or evaluate for complications related to low albumin levels.
Examples of such tests include:
Different types of ultrasounds (imaging tests that use sound waves to create pictures) may also be ordered, such as:
Sonography: How a Sonogram Test Works and What It Shows
How to Treat and Manage Hypoalbuminemia
Managing hypoalbuminemia depends on the underlying cause.
Examples of medications for conditions associated with hypoalbuminemia include:
In addition to medication, a vast array of therapeutic and supportive interventions can help manage the underlying cause of hypoalbuminemia.
For example, for people with cirrhosis-related ascites, ahepatologist(a doctor specializing in liver disease) can performparacentesis. During this procedure, large volumes of fluid are removed from the belly.
Avoiding alcohol to prevent worsening liver disease and further albumin reduction is also paramount to the care of someone living with cirrhosis.
Are Albumin Infusions Helpful?Albumin infusions for hypoalbuminemia in critical illness are controversial. Though infusions are beneficial for complications related to cirrhosis and, perhaps, in select cases of sepsis, in other instances, they may offer no benefit or even pose harm.
Are Albumin Infusions Helpful?
Albumin infusions for hypoalbuminemia in critical illness are controversial. Though infusions are beneficial for complications related to cirrhosis and, perhaps, in select cases of sepsis, in other instances, they may offer no benefit or even pose harm.
What Foods Are High in Albumin?
Dietary interventions, namely a high-protein diet, can help prevent or manage some causes of hypoalbuminemia (e.g., people with chronic kidney disease on dialysis or protein-losing enteropathy).
Animal sources rich in protein include:
Plant sources rich in protein include:
In some cases, dietary supplements or a feeding tube may also be recommended, especially if nutritional needs cannot be met through food.
Meet With a DietitianAlong with the guidance of a healthcare provider, aregistered dietitian nutritionist (RDN)can help you devise a meal plan based on your daily protein intake goals and personal preferences.
Meet With a Dietitian
Along with the guidance of a healthcare provider, aregistered dietitian nutritionist (RDN)can help you devise a meal plan based on your daily protein intake goals and personal preferences.
What Foods Are High in Protein?
Possible Complications of Hypoalbuminemia
Hypoalbuminemia is associated with several poor medical outcomes.
For instance, one large study revealed that in people undergoing various surgeries for cancer, heart, or orthopedic conditions, hypoalbuminemia was associated with a higher risk of postoperative complications (e.g., infections) and death.
Another study that examined nearly 800 people with colorectal cancer found that hypoalbuminemia was associated withanemia(low red blood cell count), increased inflammation throughout the body, and low muscle mass.
Hypoalbuminemia has also been found to serve as a marker of disease severity—for example, in people infected with COVID-19orcommunity-acquired pneumonia(lung infection).
Other possible complications of hypoalbuminemia include:
What’s the Outlook for Someone with Hypoalbuminemia?
Albumin is a possible marker of adverse medical outcomes in severe illness.However, understand that several other factors play a role in assessing a person’s prognosis.
Some of these factors include:
As such, assessing the outlook of someone with hypoalbuminemia requires a deep dive into several facets of a person’s overall health.
If you or a loved one has hypoalbuminemia, be sure to discuss the next steps with your healthcare provider.
Summary
Hypoalbuminemia refers to low blood albumin levels. It has many potential causes, including kidney or liver disease. Because albumin—the most abundant protein in the bloodstream—keeps fluid inside blood vessels, swelling from fluid accumulating within tissues occurs when levels are low.
Along with swelling, hypoalbuminemia is associated with low muscle mass, inflammation, and various adverse outcomes, like prolonged or recurrent hospitalizations and a more severe disease course.
An albumin blood test can help to diagnose hypoalbuminemia, and from there, additional blood, urine, stool, and imaging tests can unveil the cause. Treatment focuses on managing the underlying condition and may involve dietary interventions like consuming high-protein foods or abstaining from alcohol.
21 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.van de Wouw J, Joles JA.Albumin is an interface between blood plasma and cell membrane, and not just a sponge.Clin Kidney J. 2021;15(4):624-634. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfab194Soeters PB, Wolfe RR, Shenkin A.Hypoalbuminemia: pathogenesis and clinical significance.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2019;43(2):181-193. doi:10.1002/jpen.1451Kim S, McClave SA, Martindale RG, et al.Hypoalbuminemia and clinical outcomes: What is the mechanism behind the relationship?Am Surg. 2017;83(11):1220-1227. doi:10.1177/000313481708301123Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Human serum albumin homeostasis: a new look at the roles of synthesis, catabolism, renal and gastrointestinal excretion, and the clinical value of serum albumin measurements.Int J Gen Med. 2016;9:229-55. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S102819Paar M, Rossmann C, Nusshold C, et al.Anticoagulant action of low, physiologic, and high albumin levels in whole blood.PLoS One. 201712(8):e0182997. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182997Trebicka J, Garcia-Tsao G.Controversies regarding albumin therapy in cirrhosis.Hepatology. 2023 Aug 7. doi:10.1097/HEP.0000000000000521Kalantar-Zadeh K, Ficociello LH, Bazzanella J, et al.Slipping through the pores: hypoalbuminemia and albumin loss during hemodialysis.Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis. 2021;14:11-21. doi:10.2147/IJNRD.S291348Kodner C.Diagnosis and management of nephrotic syndrome in adults.Am Fam Physician. 2016;93(6):479-485.Grodin JL, Lala A, Stevens SR, et al.Clinical implications of serum albumin levels in acute heart failure: insights from DOSE-AHF and ROSE-AHF.J Card Fail.2016;22(11):884-890. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2016.01.015Sun JK, Sun F, Wang X, et al.Risk factors and prognosis of hypoalbuminemia in surgical septic patients.PeerJ. 2015;3:e1267. doi:10.7717/peerj.1267de Tymowski C, Pallado S, Anstey J, et al.Early hypoalbuminemia is associated with 28-day mortality in severely burned patients: a retrospective cohort study.Burns. 2020;46(3):630-638. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2019.09.013Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Protein losing enteropathy: comprehensive review of the mechanistic association with clinical and subclinical disease states.Clin Exp Gastroenterol. 2017;10:147-168. doi:10.2147/CEG.S136803Smith A, Baumgartner K, Bositis C.Cirrhosis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(12):759-770.Wiedermann CJ.Controversies surrounding albumin use in sepsis: lessons from cirrhosis.Int J Mol Sci.2023;24(24):17606. doi:10.3390/ijms242417606Harvard Health.High-protein foods: the best protein sources to include in a healthy diet.Yu A, Xie Y, Zhong M, et al.Comparison of the initiation time of enteral nutrition for critically ill patients: at admission vs. 24 to 48 hours after admission.Emerg Med Int. 2021;2021:3047732. doi:10.1155/2021/3047732Meyer CP, Rios-Diaz AJ, Dalela D, et al.The association of hypoalbuminemia with early perioperative outcomes — A comprehensive assessment across 16 major procedures.Am J Surg. 2017;214(5):871-883. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.11.023Almasaudi AS, Dolan RD, Edwards CA, McMillan DC.Hypoalbuminemia reflects nutritional risk, body composition and systemic inflammation and is independently associated with survival in patients with colorectal cancer.Cancers (Basel). 2020;12(7):1986. doi:10.3390/cancers12071986Paliogiannis P, Mangoni AA, Cangemi M, et al.Serum albumin concentrations are associated with disease severity and outcomes in coronavirus 19 disease (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Exp Med. 2021;21(3):343-354. doi:10.1007/s10238-021-00686-zBiswas D, Nag S, Khan AU, et al.Hypoalbuminaemia as a Marker of Severity of Patients of Community Acquired Pneumonia.Mymensingh Med J. 2023 Oct;32(4):968-974Hong X, Yan J, Xu L, Shen S, et al.Relationship between nutritional status and frailty in hospitalized older patients.Clin Interv Aging. 2019 Jan 10;14:105-111. doi:10.2147/CIA.S189040
21 Sources
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.van de Wouw J, Joles JA.Albumin is an interface between blood plasma and cell membrane, and not just a sponge.Clin Kidney J. 2021;15(4):624-634. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfab194Soeters PB, Wolfe RR, Shenkin A.Hypoalbuminemia: pathogenesis and clinical significance.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2019;43(2):181-193. doi:10.1002/jpen.1451Kim S, McClave SA, Martindale RG, et al.Hypoalbuminemia and clinical outcomes: What is the mechanism behind the relationship?Am Surg. 2017;83(11):1220-1227. doi:10.1177/000313481708301123Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Human serum albumin homeostasis: a new look at the roles of synthesis, catabolism, renal and gastrointestinal excretion, and the clinical value of serum albumin measurements.Int J Gen Med. 2016;9:229-55. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S102819Paar M, Rossmann C, Nusshold C, et al.Anticoagulant action of low, physiologic, and high albumin levels in whole blood.PLoS One. 201712(8):e0182997. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182997Trebicka J, Garcia-Tsao G.Controversies regarding albumin therapy in cirrhosis.Hepatology. 2023 Aug 7. doi:10.1097/HEP.0000000000000521Kalantar-Zadeh K, Ficociello LH, Bazzanella J, et al.Slipping through the pores: hypoalbuminemia and albumin loss during hemodialysis.Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis. 2021;14:11-21. doi:10.2147/IJNRD.S291348Kodner C.Diagnosis and management of nephrotic syndrome in adults.Am Fam Physician. 2016;93(6):479-485.Grodin JL, Lala A, Stevens SR, et al.Clinical implications of serum albumin levels in acute heart failure: insights from DOSE-AHF and ROSE-AHF.J Card Fail.2016;22(11):884-890. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2016.01.015Sun JK, Sun F, Wang X, et al.Risk factors and prognosis of hypoalbuminemia in surgical septic patients.PeerJ. 2015;3:e1267. doi:10.7717/peerj.1267de Tymowski C, Pallado S, Anstey J, et al.Early hypoalbuminemia is associated with 28-day mortality in severely burned patients: a retrospective cohort study.Burns. 2020;46(3):630-638. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2019.09.013Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Protein losing enteropathy: comprehensive review of the mechanistic association with clinical and subclinical disease states.Clin Exp Gastroenterol. 2017;10:147-168. doi:10.2147/CEG.S136803Smith A, Baumgartner K, Bositis C.Cirrhosis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(12):759-770.Wiedermann CJ.Controversies surrounding albumin use in sepsis: lessons from cirrhosis.Int J Mol Sci.2023;24(24):17606. doi:10.3390/ijms242417606Harvard Health.High-protein foods: the best protein sources to include in a healthy diet.Yu A, Xie Y, Zhong M, et al.Comparison of the initiation time of enteral nutrition for critically ill patients: at admission vs. 24 to 48 hours after admission.Emerg Med Int. 2021;2021:3047732. doi:10.1155/2021/3047732Meyer CP, Rios-Diaz AJ, Dalela D, et al.The association of hypoalbuminemia with early perioperative outcomes — A comprehensive assessment across 16 major procedures.Am J Surg. 2017;214(5):871-883. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.11.023Almasaudi AS, Dolan RD, Edwards CA, McMillan DC.Hypoalbuminemia reflects nutritional risk, body composition and systemic inflammation and is independently associated with survival in patients with colorectal cancer.Cancers (Basel). 2020;12(7):1986. doi:10.3390/cancers12071986Paliogiannis P, Mangoni AA, Cangemi M, et al.Serum albumin concentrations are associated with disease severity and outcomes in coronavirus 19 disease (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Exp Med. 2021;21(3):343-354. doi:10.1007/s10238-021-00686-zBiswas D, Nag S, Khan AU, et al.Hypoalbuminaemia as a Marker of Severity of Patients of Community Acquired Pneumonia.Mymensingh Med J. 2023 Oct;32(4):968-974Hong X, Yan J, Xu L, Shen S, et al.Relationship between nutritional status and frailty in hospitalized older patients.Clin Interv Aging. 2019 Jan 10;14:105-111. doi:10.2147/CIA.S189040
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
van de Wouw J, Joles JA.Albumin is an interface between blood plasma and cell membrane, and not just a sponge.Clin Kidney J. 2021;15(4):624-634. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfab194Soeters PB, Wolfe RR, Shenkin A.Hypoalbuminemia: pathogenesis and clinical significance.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2019;43(2):181-193. doi:10.1002/jpen.1451Kim S, McClave SA, Martindale RG, et al.Hypoalbuminemia and clinical outcomes: What is the mechanism behind the relationship?Am Surg. 2017;83(11):1220-1227. doi:10.1177/000313481708301123Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Human serum albumin homeostasis: a new look at the roles of synthesis, catabolism, renal and gastrointestinal excretion, and the clinical value of serum albumin measurements.Int J Gen Med. 2016;9:229-55. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S102819Paar M, Rossmann C, Nusshold C, et al.Anticoagulant action of low, physiologic, and high albumin levels in whole blood.PLoS One. 201712(8):e0182997. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182997Trebicka J, Garcia-Tsao G.Controversies regarding albumin therapy in cirrhosis.Hepatology. 2023 Aug 7. doi:10.1097/HEP.0000000000000521Kalantar-Zadeh K, Ficociello LH, Bazzanella J, et al.Slipping through the pores: hypoalbuminemia and albumin loss during hemodialysis.Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis. 2021;14:11-21. doi:10.2147/IJNRD.S291348Kodner C.Diagnosis and management of nephrotic syndrome in adults.Am Fam Physician. 2016;93(6):479-485.Grodin JL, Lala A, Stevens SR, et al.Clinical implications of serum albumin levels in acute heart failure: insights from DOSE-AHF and ROSE-AHF.J Card Fail.2016;22(11):884-890. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2016.01.015Sun JK, Sun F, Wang X, et al.Risk factors and prognosis of hypoalbuminemia in surgical septic patients.PeerJ. 2015;3:e1267. doi:10.7717/peerj.1267de Tymowski C, Pallado S, Anstey J, et al.Early hypoalbuminemia is associated with 28-day mortality in severely burned patients: a retrospective cohort study.Burns. 2020;46(3):630-638. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2019.09.013Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Protein losing enteropathy: comprehensive review of the mechanistic association with clinical and subclinical disease states.Clin Exp Gastroenterol. 2017;10:147-168. doi:10.2147/CEG.S136803Smith A, Baumgartner K, Bositis C.Cirrhosis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(12):759-770.Wiedermann CJ.Controversies surrounding albumin use in sepsis: lessons from cirrhosis.Int J Mol Sci.2023;24(24):17606. doi:10.3390/ijms242417606Harvard Health.High-protein foods: the best protein sources to include in a healthy diet.Yu A, Xie Y, Zhong M, et al.Comparison of the initiation time of enteral nutrition for critically ill patients: at admission vs. 24 to 48 hours after admission.Emerg Med Int. 2021;2021:3047732. doi:10.1155/2021/3047732Meyer CP, Rios-Diaz AJ, Dalela D, et al.The association of hypoalbuminemia with early perioperative outcomes — A comprehensive assessment across 16 major procedures.Am J Surg. 2017;214(5):871-883. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.11.023Almasaudi AS, Dolan RD, Edwards CA, McMillan DC.Hypoalbuminemia reflects nutritional risk, body composition and systemic inflammation and is independently associated with survival in patients with colorectal cancer.Cancers (Basel). 2020;12(7):1986. doi:10.3390/cancers12071986Paliogiannis P, Mangoni AA, Cangemi M, et al.Serum albumin concentrations are associated with disease severity and outcomes in coronavirus 19 disease (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Exp Med. 2021;21(3):343-354. doi:10.1007/s10238-021-00686-zBiswas D, Nag S, Khan AU, et al.Hypoalbuminaemia as a Marker of Severity of Patients of Community Acquired Pneumonia.Mymensingh Med J. 2023 Oct;32(4):968-974Hong X, Yan J, Xu L, Shen S, et al.Relationship between nutritional status and frailty in hospitalized older patients.Clin Interv Aging. 2019 Jan 10;14:105-111. doi:10.2147/CIA.S189040
van de Wouw J, Joles JA.Albumin is an interface between blood plasma and cell membrane, and not just a sponge.Clin Kidney J. 2021;15(4):624-634. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfab194
Soeters PB, Wolfe RR, Shenkin A.Hypoalbuminemia: pathogenesis and clinical significance.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2019;43(2):181-193. doi:10.1002/jpen.1451
Kim S, McClave SA, Martindale RG, et al.Hypoalbuminemia and clinical outcomes: What is the mechanism behind the relationship?Am Surg. 2017;83(11):1220-1227. doi:10.1177/000313481708301123
Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Human serum albumin homeostasis: a new look at the roles of synthesis, catabolism, renal and gastrointestinal excretion, and the clinical value of serum albumin measurements.Int J Gen Med. 2016;9:229-55. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S102819
Paar M, Rossmann C, Nusshold C, et al.Anticoagulant action of low, physiologic, and high albumin levels in whole blood.PLoS One. 201712(8):e0182997. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182997
Trebicka J, Garcia-Tsao G.Controversies regarding albumin therapy in cirrhosis.Hepatology. 2023 Aug 7. doi:10.1097/HEP.0000000000000521
Kalantar-Zadeh K, Ficociello LH, Bazzanella J, et al.Slipping through the pores: hypoalbuminemia and albumin loss during hemodialysis.Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis. 2021;14:11-21. doi:10.2147/IJNRD.S291348
Kodner C.Diagnosis and management of nephrotic syndrome in adults.Am Fam Physician. 2016;93(6):479-485.
Grodin JL, Lala A, Stevens SR, et al.Clinical implications of serum albumin levels in acute heart failure: insights from DOSE-AHF and ROSE-AHF.J Card Fail.2016;22(11):884-890. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2016.01.015
Sun JK, Sun F, Wang X, et al.Risk factors and prognosis of hypoalbuminemia in surgical septic patients.PeerJ. 2015;3:e1267. doi:10.7717/peerj.1267
de Tymowski C, Pallado S, Anstey J, et al.Early hypoalbuminemia is associated with 28-day mortality in severely burned patients: a retrospective cohort study.Burns. 2020;46(3):630-638. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2019.09.013
Levitt DG, Levitt MD.Protein losing enteropathy: comprehensive review of the mechanistic association with clinical and subclinical disease states.Clin Exp Gastroenterol. 2017;10:147-168. doi:10.2147/CEG.S136803
Smith A, Baumgartner K, Bositis C.Cirrhosis: diagnosis and management.Am Fam Physician. 2019;100(12):759-770.
Wiedermann CJ.Controversies surrounding albumin use in sepsis: lessons from cirrhosis.Int J Mol Sci.2023;24(24):17606. doi:10.3390/ijms242417606
Harvard Health.High-protein foods: the best protein sources to include in a healthy diet.
Yu A, Xie Y, Zhong M, et al.Comparison of the initiation time of enteral nutrition for critically ill patients: at admission vs. 24 to 48 hours after admission.Emerg Med Int. 2021;2021:3047732. doi:10.1155/2021/3047732
Meyer CP, Rios-Diaz AJ, Dalela D, et al.The association of hypoalbuminemia with early perioperative outcomes — A comprehensive assessment across 16 major procedures.Am J Surg. 2017;214(5):871-883. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.11.023
Almasaudi AS, Dolan RD, Edwards CA, McMillan DC.Hypoalbuminemia reflects nutritional risk, body composition and systemic inflammation and is independently associated with survival in patients with colorectal cancer.Cancers (Basel). 2020;12(7):1986. doi:10.3390/cancers12071986
Paliogiannis P, Mangoni AA, Cangemi M, et al.Serum albumin concentrations are associated with disease severity and outcomes in coronavirus 19 disease (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis.Clin Exp Med. 2021;21(3):343-354. doi:10.1007/s10238-021-00686-z
Biswas D, Nag S, Khan AU, et al.Hypoalbuminaemia as a Marker of Severity of Patients of Community Acquired Pneumonia.Mymensingh Med J. 2023 Oct;32(4):968-974
Hong X, Yan J, Xu L, Shen S, et al.Relationship between nutritional status and frailty in hospitalized older patients.Clin Interv Aging. 2019 Jan 10;14:105-111. doi:10.2147/CIA.S189040
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