White spots on the tongue have different causes. They can look like pimple-type bumps, or they may be white canker sores with a red edge. A fungal infection is the cause of oral thrush, which has white lesions and sores in the mouth lining.
While these spots aren’t typically serious, an underlying cause such as syphilis orleukoplakiarequires evaluation and treatment. If you have pain with white spots in your mouth or they don’t go away within a few weeks, talk to your healthcare provider.
Martin Barraud / Getty Images
Poor Oral Hygiene
When you don’t brush and floss regularly, bacteria and yeast can build up on your tongue. This white buildup causes the papillae to become inflamed and discolored, in all or parts of the tongue. Some people might notice redness, bad breath, or a bad taste in the mouth.
Besides poor oral hygiene, some people may notice a white tongue if they experience:
Treatment
You also can ask your dental care professional about other conditions, like a dry mouth (xerostomia), that are contributing to your spots. Medications and other health conditions may be the cause.
Canker Sores
Canker sores are small ulcers that can appear on the inside of the lips, the cheeks, or the tongue. They can look like white or yellow spots with a red border.They are also calledaphthous ulcers.
Canker sores are common, affecting up to 20% of the population. Their exact cause is unknown, but they are believed to be related to varying factors such as:
Canker sores usually go away on their own in one or two weeks. You can apply a gel or cream such as Orajel or Anbesol (benzocaine topical) to the sore to limit the pain and speed healing.
If you have recurrent canker sores, your healthcare provider can prescribe medicated mouthwash to help prevent outbreaks.
Lie Bumps
Transient lingual papillitisis a condition commonly known as “lie bumps.” Lie bumps are inflamed papillae. They usually appear suddenly and can be white or red in appearance. Lie bumps:
Lie bumps are more common on the tip of the tongue or along the sides.
The cause of lie bumps isn’t well understood, but they are thought to be related to trauma (such as biting or burning your tongue, or friction from wearing braces). They may also be related to stress, poor nutrition or sleep, eating spicy foods, or smoking.
Lie bumps usually go away on their own in a few days. In severe cases, they can last up to three weeks. If you are experiencing pain, your healthcare provider may recommend corticosteroids, medicated mouthwashes and rinses, and avoiding hot foods.
Oral Thrush
Oral thrush is a fungal infection in the mouth that is usually located in the lining of the mouth and tongue. The cause of thrush is an overgrowth of a yeast calledCandida.
This growth has raised white lesions on the inner cheeks and tongue and can cause:
Thrush diagnosisincludes a physical exam and rarely requires taking a throat culture.It’s important to check with a healthcare provider to get the proper diagnosis and treatment.
The typicaltreatment for oral thrushis a prescription of antifungal medication. This can come in the form of lozenges, tablets, or liquid. This treatment is usually prescribed for seven to 14 days.
Treatment also depends on:
Your healthcare provider can give you the proper treatment and also rule out if there are other medical conditions involved, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Certain medications such as antibiotics and muscle relaxers are known to cause white patches. Antibiotics create yeast, which can lead to the occurrence of white patches in the mouth.
Leukoplakia
Leukoplakiahappens when one or more lesions or white patches form inside the mouth. This condition is known to develop into oral cancer in a certain percentage of people.
The two types of leukoplakia include:
Tobacco use and heavy alcohol consumption are risk factors for leukoplakia, though people without these risk factors can also develop the condition.Diagnosis is usually made from a biopsy.
When treating leukoplakia, the goal is to prevent cancer. Although the lesions can be removed, they can also return. If you smoke and drink alcohol regularly, it is important to stop.
Treatments include:
Another option is surgery to remove the lesions. Although a patient may opt for surgery, there is around a 30% chance that the lesions could return.
Hairy Leukoplakia
Hairy leukoplakia describes white patches that appear along the outside borders of the tongue.These patches don’t rub off and may look hairy.
Hairy leukoplakia does not usually require treatment, though the condition that is causing your weakened immune system may need to be managed differently. If you have HIV, for example, your healthcare provider may want to change your treatment plan to help strengthen your immune system.
Some cases of hairy leukoplakia may require treatment with a topical medication. If the sore is causing severe symptoms, they may recommend having it surgically removed.
Cold Sores
Cold sores on the tongue are usually diagnosed with an oral examination. Your healthcare provider may also take a sample of the fluid inside the sore. The sample will be sent to a laboratory, which can confirm its cause.A blood test can also help identify an HSV infection.
There is no cure for the herpes simplex virus, but treatment may include:
Geographic Tongue
Geographic tongue is an inflammatory condition of the tongue. It causes a bald, red area with an irregular white border to appear on the top or sides of the tongue. Most people have no other symptoms, though some may experience a burning sensation on the tongue.
The condition may resolve on its own or it may come and go. Geographic tongue is usually diagnosed based on your symptoms and the appearance of your tongue.
Since geographic tongue doesn’t usually cause pain or other uncomfortable symptoms, treatment isn’t usually necessary. If you do have discomfort, your healthcare provider may recommend a topical anesthetic or an anti-inflammatory medication to help control pain.
Syphilis
Syphilisis a sexually transmitted infection that can occur and spread through sexual contact with someone who has the condition. If the infection is left untreated, syphilis can lead to serious health issues, including:
White spots on the tongue can occur with certain stages of syphilis. A small, painless sore may be yellow in color, and first appear on the lips or on the top or side of the tongue.As the disease progresses, you may develop multiple mucous patches in your mouth, which can be oval or have a wavy border. They may be silvery or white.
During the secondary stage, a bumpysyphilis rashmay appear on the body—typically the hands or soles of the feet or palms. Other symptoms include flu-like ones such as muscle aches, fever, sore throat, or fatigue.
It is important to speak with a healthcare professional to get the proper treatment and education regarding the infection.
Syphilis is typically treated with antibiotics.Your healthcare provider will repeat testing after the entire course of treatment is complete. It is important to get tested regularly and to practice safer sex, including the use of condoms.
Oral Lichen Planus
Oral lichen planusis a condition that appears in the mouth. It stems from lichen planus, a chronic disease that affects the mucous membranes and skin. This happens when mucus is secreted from the thin layers of tissue that line the body cavity. It is not contagious and usually affects people between age 50 and 60 years.
Symptoms include:
There is no known cause of this condition, although research suggests that genetics and the immune system play a part. Some medications can cause oral lichen. These include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and beta-blockers.
Chronic conditions of primary biliary cholangitis (formerly known as primary biliary cirrhosis) and hepatitis B also can cause oral lichen planus.
If oral lichen planus is mild, it may go away on its own over time. A healthcare professional will monitor the condition, and treatment may not be needed. In the event that the symptoms worsen, the doctor may recommend treatments.
Some of the medications used to treat oral lichen planus include:
Tongue Cancer
Oral cancer can affect the tongue as well as other parts of the mouth. It may appear as a white or red patch. There are usually additional symptoms, such as:
Anyone can develop oral cancer, but you are more at risk if you smoke, are a regular alcohol user, or if you have a human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Additional risk factors include:
Your dentist or dental hygienist will examine your mouth for signs of oral cancer during your regular dental checkup. If they find any suspicious lesions, they will refer you to a specialist for evaluation and treatment.
Oral cancer is treatable if caught early. Depending on factors such as your health, the stage of cancer, and the location and size of the tumor, treatment may include:
When to See a Healthcare Provider
You probably don’t need to see a healthcare provider if a white tongue is your only symptom. However, you should make an appointment if you have a white tongue along with other symptoms such as:
It is important to see a healthcare provider if you notice anything unusual in your mouth, especially a sore or spot in your mouth that doesn’t resolve on its own. You should also do so if you have white patches on your mouth or tongue that don’t go away after three weeks.
Summary
White spots or patches on the tongue usually have benign (not harmful) causes. You may get them when you are dehydrated or because of poor oral hygiene. Conditions like oral thrush and canker sores can also cause the appearance of white spots or patches in the mouth.
Some of these conditions resolve on their own, while others require treatment with antibiotics or medications such as antifungals. See your healthcare provider for mouth sores that are very painful, get in the way of eating or drinking, or don’t resolve on their own in a few weeks.
30 SourcesVerywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.DermNet.Oral candidiasis.Harvard Health Publishing.What color is your tongue? What’s healthy, what’s not?Jamali R, Goodarzi N, Jamali A, Moslemi N.The relationship between white tongue and gastroesophageal reflux disease.Adv Biomed Res. 2023;12:107. doi:10.4103/abr.abr_78_22American Dental Association.Mouthrinse (Mouthwash).Mark AM.The basics of mouth sores.J Am Dent Assoc. 2022;153(10):1014. doi:10.1016/j.adaj.2022.07.010Tiwari A.Aphthous ulcer: A case report.PJSR. 2023;16(1):66-68.Kalogirou EM, Tosios KI, Nikitakis NG, Kamperos G, Sklavounou A.Transient lingual papillitis: A retrospective study of 11 cases and review of the literature.J Clin Exp Dent. 2017;9(1):e157-e162. doi: 10.4317/jced.53283Karajacob AS, Azizan NB, Al-Maleki ARM, et al.Candida species and oral mycobiota of patients clinically diagnosed with oral thrush.PLoS One. 2023;18(4):e0284043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0284043Acharya S, Lohe VK, Bhowate RR.Diagnosis and management of pseudomembranous candidiasis.J Otolaryngol ENT Res. 2017;8(3):00249. doi:10.15406/joentr.2017.08.00249Quindós G, Gil-Alonso S, Marcos-Arias C, et al.Therapeutic tools for oral candidiasis: Current and new antifungal drugs.Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2019;24(2):e172-e180. doi:10.4317/medoral.22978Mortazavi H, Safi Y, Baharvand M, Jafari S, Anbari F, Rahmani S.Oral white lesions: An updated clinical diagnostic decision tree.Dent J. 2019;7:15. doi:10.3390/dj7010015Holmstrup P, Dabelsteen E.Oral leukoplakia-to treat or not to treat.Oral Dis. 2016;22(6):494-7. doi:10.1111/odi.12443Rodriguez-Archilla A, Garcia-Gamez MT.Risk factors for oral leukoplakia: A meta-analysis.J Res Notes. 2018;1(1):1001.Bewley AF, Farwell DG.Oral leukoplakia and oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma.Clin Dermatol. 2017;35(5):461-467. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2017.06.008See JKL, Liu X, Canfora F, Moore C, McCullough M, Yap T,et al.The Role of Vitamins in Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Oral Cancer: A Systematic Review.J Pers Med. 2023 Oct 23;13(10):1520. doi: 10.3390/jpm13101520de Pauli Paglioni M, Migliorati CA, Schausltz Pereira Faustino I, et al.Laser excision of oral leukoplakia: Does it affect recurrence and malignant transformation? A systematic review and meta-analysis.Oral Oncol. 2020;109:104850. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2020.104850Alramadhan SA, Bhattacharyya I, Cohen DM, Islam MN.Oral hairy leukoplakia in immunocompetent patients revisited with literature review.Head Neck Pathol. 2021;15(3):989-993. doi:10.1007/s12105-021-01287-8Johns Hopkins Medicine.Oral hairy leukoplakia.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Cold sores.American Academy of Oral Medicine.Geographic tongue.Stamm LV.Syphilis: Re-emergence of an old foe.Microb Cell. 2016;3(9):363-370. doi:10.15698/mic2016.09.523de Arruda JAA, do Valle IB, Mesquita RA, Silva TA.Oral syphilis.J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021;84(2):e101-e102. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2020.09.067UpToDate.Oral lichen planus: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis.Yousefi H, Abdollahi M.An update on drug-induced oral reactions.J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2018;21(1):171-183. doi:10.18433/jpps29893Khajavi MA, Meshkat Z, Pasdar A, Ghazi A, Gerayli S, Banihashemi E, Mosannen Mozafari P.Hepatitis B virus infection and oral lichen planus: A report from northeast of Iran.J Dent Mater Tech. 2018;7(2):83-8.Rotaru D, Chisnoiu R, Picos AM, Picos A, Chisnoiu A.Treatment trends in oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions (Review).Exp Ther Med. 2020;20(6):198. doi:10.3892/etm.2020.9328American Cancer Fund.Oral cancer.American Cancer Society.Risk factors for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers.National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research.Oral cancer.National Healthcare Service.Mouth ulcers.
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Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.DermNet.Oral candidiasis.Harvard Health Publishing.What color is your tongue? What’s healthy, what’s not?Jamali R, Goodarzi N, Jamali A, Moslemi N.The relationship between white tongue and gastroesophageal reflux disease.Adv Biomed Res. 2023;12:107. doi:10.4103/abr.abr_78_22American Dental Association.Mouthrinse (Mouthwash).Mark AM.The basics of mouth sores.J Am Dent Assoc. 2022;153(10):1014. doi:10.1016/j.adaj.2022.07.010Tiwari A.Aphthous ulcer: A case report.PJSR. 2023;16(1):66-68.Kalogirou EM, Tosios KI, Nikitakis NG, Kamperos G, Sklavounou A.Transient lingual papillitis: A retrospective study of 11 cases and review of the literature.J Clin Exp Dent. 2017;9(1):e157-e162. doi: 10.4317/jced.53283Karajacob AS, Azizan NB, Al-Maleki ARM, et al.Candida species and oral mycobiota of patients clinically diagnosed with oral thrush.PLoS One. 2023;18(4):e0284043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0284043Acharya S, Lohe VK, Bhowate RR.Diagnosis and management of pseudomembranous candidiasis.J Otolaryngol ENT Res. 2017;8(3):00249. doi:10.15406/joentr.2017.08.00249Quindós G, Gil-Alonso S, Marcos-Arias C, et al.Therapeutic tools for oral candidiasis: Current and new antifungal drugs.Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2019;24(2):e172-e180. doi:10.4317/medoral.22978Mortazavi H, Safi Y, Baharvand M, Jafari S, Anbari F, Rahmani S.Oral white lesions: An updated clinical diagnostic decision tree.Dent J. 2019;7:15. doi:10.3390/dj7010015Holmstrup P, Dabelsteen E.Oral leukoplakia-to treat or not to treat.Oral Dis. 2016;22(6):494-7. doi:10.1111/odi.12443Rodriguez-Archilla A, Garcia-Gamez MT.Risk factors for oral leukoplakia: A meta-analysis.J Res Notes. 2018;1(1):1001.Bewley AF, Farwell DG.Oral leukoplakia and oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma.Clin Dermatol. 2017;35(5):461-467. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2017.06.008See JKL, Liu X, Canfora F, Moore C, McCullough M, Yap T,et al.The Role of Vitamins in Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Oral Cancer: A Systematic Review.J Pers Med. 2023 Oct 23;13(10):1520. doi: 10.3390/jpm13101520de Pauli Paglioni M, Migliorati CA, Schausltz Pereira Faustino I, et al.Laser excision of oral leukoplakia: Does it affect recurrence and malignant transformation? A systematic review and meta-analysis.Oral Oncol. 2020;109:104850. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2020.104850Alramadhan SA, Bhattacharyya I, Cohen DM, Islam MN.Oral hairy leukoplakia in immunocompetent patients revisited with literature review.Head Neck Pathol. 2021;15(3):989-993. doi:10.1007/s12105-021-01287-8Johns Hopkins Medicine.Oral hairy leukoplakia.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Cold sores.American Academy of Oral Medicine.Geographic tongue.Stamm LV.Syphilis: Re-emergence of an old foe.Microb Cell. 2016;3(9):363-370. doi:10.15698/mic2016.09.523de Arruda JAA, do Valle IB, Mesquita RA, Silva TA.Oral syphilis.J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021;84(2):e101-e102. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2020.09.067UpToDate.Oral lichen planus: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis.Yousefi H, Abdollahi M.An update on drug-induced oral reactions.J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2018;21(1):171-183. doi:10.18433/jpps29893Khajavi MA, Meshkat Z, Pasdar A, Ghazi A, Gerayli S, Banihashemi E, Mosannen Mozafari P.Hepatitis B virus infection and oral lichen planus: A report from northeast of Iran.J Dent Mater Tech. 2018;7(2):83-8.Rotaru D, Chisnoiu R, Picos AM, Picos A, Chisnoiu A.Treatment trends in oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions (Review).Exp Ther Med. 2020;20(6):198. doi:10.3892/etm.2020.9328American Cancer Fund.Oral cancer.American Cancer Society.Risk factors for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers.National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research.Oral cancer.National Healthcare Service.Mouth ulcers.
Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read oureditorial processto learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
DermNet.Oral candidiasis.Harvard Health Publishing.What color is your tongue? What’s healthy, what’s not?Jamali R, Goodarzi N, Jamali A, Moslemi N.The relationship between white tongue and gastroesophageal reflux disease.Adv Biomed Res. 2023;12:107. doi:10.4103/abr.abr_78_22American Dental Association.Mouthrinse (Mouthwash).Mark AM.The basics of mouth sores.J Am Dent Assoc. 2022;153(10):1014. doi:10.1016/j.adaj.2022.07.010Tiwari A.Aphthous ulcer: A case report.PJSR. 2023;16(1):66-68.Kalogirou EM, Tosios KI, Nikitakis NG, Kamperos G, Sklavounou A.Transient lingual papillitis: A retrospective study of 11 cases and review of the literature.J Clin Exp Dent. 2017;9(1):e157-e162. doi: 10.4317/jced.53283Karajacob AS, Azizan NB, Al-Maleki ARM, et al.Candida species and oral mycobiota of patients clinically diagnosed with oral thrush.PLoS One. 2023;18(4):e0284043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0284043Acharya S, Lohe VK, Bhowate RR.Diagnosis and management of pseudomembranous candidiasis.J Otolaryngol ENT Res. 2017;8(3):00249. doi:10.15406/joentr.2017.08.00249Quindós G, Gil-Alonso S, Marcos-Arias C, et al.Therapeutic tools for oral candidiasis: Current and new antifungal drugs.Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2019;24(2):e172-e180. doi:10.4317/medoral.22978Mortazavi H, Safi Y, Baharvand M, Jafari S, Anbari F, Rahmani S.Oral white lesions: An updated clinical diagnostic decision tree.Dent J. 2019;7:15. doi:10.3390/dj7010015Holmstrup P, Dabelsteen E.Oral leukoplakia-to treat or not to treat.Oral Dis. 2016;22(6):494-7. doi:10.1111/odi.12443Rodriguez-Archilla A, Garcia-Gamez MT.Risk factors for oral leukoplakia: A meta-analysis.J Res Notes. 2018;1(1):1001.Bewley AF, Farwell DG.Oral leukoplakia and oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma.Clin Dermatol. 2017;35(5):461-467. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2017.06.008See JKL, Liu X, Canfora F, Moore C, McCullough M, Yap T,et al.The Role of Vitamins in Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Oral Cancer: A Systematic Review.J Pers Med. 2023 Oct 23;13(10):1520. doi: 10.3390/jpm13101520de Pauli Paglioni M, Migliorati CA, Schausltz Pereira Faustino I, et al.Laser excision of oral leukoplakia: Does it affect recurrence and malignant transformation? A systematic review and meta-analysis.Oral Oncol. 2020;109:104850. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2020.104850Alramadhan SA, Bhattacharyya I, Cohen DM, Islam MN.Oral hairy leukoplakia in immunocompetent patients revisited with literature review.Head Neck Pathol. 2021;15(3):989-993. doi:10.1007/s12105-021-01287-8Johns Hopkins Medicine.Oral hairy leukoplakia.Johns Hopkins Medicine.Cold sores.American Academy of Oral Medicine.Geographic tongue.Stamm LV.Syphilis: Re-emergence of an old foe.Microb Cell. 2016;3(9):363-370. doi:10.15698/mic2016.09.523de Arruda JAA, do Valle IB, Mesquita RA, Silva TA.Oral syphilis.J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021;84(2):e101-e102. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2020.09.067UpToDate.Oral lichen planus: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis.Yousefi H, Abdollahi M.An update on drug-induced oral reactions.J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2018;21(1):171-183. doi:10.18433/jpps29893Khajavi MA, Meshkat Z, Pasdar A, Ghazi A, Gerayli S, Banihashemi E, Mosannen Mozafari P.Hepatitis B virus infection and oral lichen planus: A report from northeast of Iran.J Dent Mater Tech. 2018;7(2):83-8.Rotaru D, Chisnoiu R, Picos AM, Picos A, Chisnoiu A.Treatment trends in oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions (Review).Exp Ther Med. 2020;20(6):198. doi:10.3892/etm.2020.9328American Cancer Fund.Oral cancer.American Cancer Society.Risk factors for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers.National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research.Oral cancer.National Healthcare Service.Mouth ulcers.
DermNet.Oral candidiasis.
Harvard Health Publishing.What color is your tongue? What’s healthy, what’s not?
Jamali R, Goodarzi N, Jamali A, Moslemi N.The relationship between white tongue and gastroesophageal reflux disease.Adv Biomed Res. 2023;12:107. doi:10.4103/abr.abr_78_22
American Dental Association.Mouthrinse (Mouthwash).
Mark AM.The basics of mouth sores.J Am Dent Assoc. 2022;153(10):1014. doi:10.1016/j.adaj.2022.07.010
Tiwari A.Aphthous ulcer: A case report.PJSR. 2023;16(1):66-68.
Kalogirou EM, Tosios KI, Nikitakis NG, Kamperos G, Sklavounou A.Transient lingual papillitis: A retrospective study of 11 cases and review of the literature.J Clin Exp Dent. 2017;9(1):e157-e162. doi: 10.4317/jced.53283
Karajacob AS, Azizan NB, Al-Maleki ARM, et al.Candida species and oral mycobiota of patients clinically diagnosed with oral thrush.PLoS One. 2023;18(4):e0284043. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0284043
Acharya S, Lohe VK, Bhowate RR.Diagnosis and management of pseudomembranous candidiasis.J Otolaryngol ENT Res. 2017;8(3):00249. doi:10.15406/joentr.2017.08.00249
Quindós G, Gil-Alonso S, Marcos-Arias C, et al.Therapeutic tools for oral candidiasis: Current and new antifungal drugs.Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2019;24(2):e172-e180. doi:10.4317/medoral.22978
Mortazavi H, Safi Y, Baharvand M, Jafari S, Anbari F, Rahmani S.Oral white lesions: An updated clinical diagnostic decision tree.Dent J. 2019;7:15. doi:10.3390/dj7010015
Holmstrup P, Dabelsteen E.Oral leukoplakia-to treat or not to treat.Oral Dis. 2016;22(6):494-7. doi:10.1111/odi.12443
Rodriguez-Archilla A, Garcia-Gamez MT.Risk factors for oral leukoplakia: A meta-analysis.J Res Notes. 2018;1(1):1001.
Bewley AF, Farwell DG.Oral leukoplakia and oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma.Clin Dermatol. 2017;35(5):461-467. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2017.06.008
See JKL, Liu X, Canfora F, Moore C, McCullough M, Yap T,et al.The Role of Vitamins in Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Oral Cancer: A Systematic Review.J Pers Med. 2023 Oct 23;13(10):1520. doi: 10.3390/jpm13101520
de Pauli Paglioni M, Migliorati CA, Schausltz Pereira Faustino I, et al.Laser excision of oral leukoplakia: Does it affect recurrence and malignant transformation? A systematic review and meta-analysis.Oral Oncol. 2020;109:104850. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2020.104850
Alramadhan SA, Bhattacharyya I, Cohen DM, Islam MN.Oral hairy leukoplakia in immunocompetent patients revisited with literature review.Head Neck Pathol. 2021;15(3):989-993. doi:10.1007/s12105-021-01287-8
Johns Hopkins Medicine.Oral hairy leukoplakia.
Johns Hopkins Medicine.Cold sores.
American Academy of Oral Medicine.Geographic tongue.
Stamm LV.Syphilis: Re-emergence of an old foe.Microb Cell. 2016;3(9):363-370. doi:10.15698/mic2016.09.523
de Arruda JAA, do Valle IB, Mesquita RA, Silva TA.Oral syphilis.J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021;84(2):e101-e102. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2020.09.067
UpToDate.Oral lichen planus: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis.
Yousefi H, Abdollahi M.An update on drug-induced oral reactions.J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2018;21(1):171-183. doi:10.18433/jpps29893
Khajavi MA, Meshkat Z, Pasdar A, Ghazi A, Gerayli S, Banihashemi E, Mosannen Mozafari P.Hepatitis B virus infection and oral lichen planus: A report from northeast of Iran.J Dent Mater Tech. 2018;7(2):83-8.
Rotaru D, Chisnoiu R, Picos AM, Picos A, Chisnoiu A.Treatment trends in oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions (Review).Exp Ther Med. 2020;20(6):198. doi:10.3892/etm.2020.9328
American Cancer Fund.Oral cancer.
American Cancer Society.Risk factors for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers.
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research.Oral cancer.
National Healthcare Service.Mouth ulcers.
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